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Description
Abstract. Student alienation is a major cause of dropping out of school, gang activity and poor peer, school-student, and teacher-student relationships. A considerable amount of research has focused on factors that distinguish between students who are engaged in the learning process and those who are not. This study examined the relationship between students and their perceptions of school life. A survey was distributed to over 200 students at two high schools in a large, urban school district in the southern United States. Results suggest that gender, race/ethnicity, and placement in special education are all strong factors in influencing whether students perceive school and/or life in general as alienating. The limitations of the study as well as future research directions and implications for practice are discussed.
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Bronfenbrenner (1986) described alienation as a lack of sense of belonging, feeling cut off from family, friends, or school. It is the inability of adolescents to connect meaningfully with other people. It is the feeling of aloneness, a feeling that no one is like them, and that they are not what others want them to be (Mackey & Appleman, 1984). Many things in an adolescent's life can trigger these feelings (e.g., changes in family structure, increased mobility of society, decreased family stability, dehumanization of the adolescent). The advent of computers and other technologies has also drawn many adolescents into a state of isolation.
Alienation is viewed as a negative aspect of an adolescent's life, associated with behaviors such as (a) violence (Ascher, 1982; Staples, 2000); (b) gang membership (Calabrese & Noboa, 1995; Shoho, 1996; Shoho & Petrisky, 1996); (c) school failure (Mau, 1989, 1992); and dropping out of school (Calabrese & Poe, 1990; Valverde, 1987; Whaley & Stayer, 1998). While alienation affects adolescents in their home and social life, it is the potential effects on their education that this study is most concerned with.
The construct of alienation has evolved through Christian doctrine, philosophical thought, contemporary sociology, and social psychology over the past 160 years (Trusty & Dooley-Dickey, 1993). Social scientists have attempted to understand the concept since the late 1950s.
In the educational literature, the models of alienation used most often are those of Seeman (1959) and Dean (1961). Seeman's model consists of five distinct categories, including powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolationism, and self-estrangement. Dean combined isolationism and self-estrangement from Seeman's model to form four categories (e.g., powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, social estrangement).
Since the 1950s, researchers (Calabrese, 1987; Clark, 1959; Horton & Thompson, 1962; Mackey, 1975; Olsen, 1969; Shoho & Petrisky, 1996) have added to and taken from the categories used by Seeman and Dean. Although many scholars have discussed constructs/categories that are loosely grouped together as alienation, few attempts have been made to measure it. Currently, powerlessness, normlessness, estrangement, and meaninglessness are the constructs most associated with alienation and are the constructs examined in this study. Table 1 includes a brief definition of each construct as well as sample items from the questionnaire used in this study. Each of the constructs will be briefly discussed below (the Student Factors Questionnaire).
Powerlessness
Individuals who feel powerless see themselves as having no control over events in their life (Dean, 1961). Often students who feel powerless are easily manipulated and used by others (i.e., peers) because of their feeling of helplessness to control the events in their lives or the outcome of events in their social system (Fetco, 1985; Silverman, Lucas, & Gear, 1970). They feel as if others are using them, and they live in constant threat of having their lives affected by forces over which they have no control (Fetco, 1985). Many times these students will be heard saying, "Rules are set and I don't have much choice."
Meaninglessness
Individuals who experience meaninglessness do not have the ability to predict outcomes. "Meaningless" for students means that they lack an understanding of the school activities in which they are engaged, which leaves them unsure that school will contribute in a positive way to their future (Rafalides & Hoy, 1971). These students tend to rely on luck and chance because of their belief that rules do not matter (Silverman et al., 1970).
Normlessness
Individuals who feel normless lose the socialized values that give purpose to life (Dean, 1961). In normlessness, they find approval for breaking the rules of society, place emphasis on getting ahead, and superficially conform for appearances only (Silverman et al., 1970). Often, these students are not sure of the rules they should follow (Fetco, 1985).
Estrangement
Persons who experience estrangement have feelings of loneliness or separation from group norms or standards (Dean, 1961). Because of this physical and/or mental separateness, these individuals spend an inordinate amount of time alone (Silverman et al., 1970). These students may express that they would rather be by themselves than with others (Fetco, 1985).
IMPACT OF ALIENATION
While there have been no systematic national studies on student alienation, reports dealing with vandalism, absenteeism, and declining achievement portray large numbers of students as being estranged from school (Calabrese, 1987; Calabrese & Seldin, 1987; Mackey & Ahlgren, 1977; Newmann, 1981; Staples, 2000; Wenz, 1979). Thus, examples of dedication, school spirit, and satisfaction often seem overshadowed by persistent reports of apathy and hostility toward school (Davison-Aviles, Guerrero, Howarth, & Thomas, 1999).
As mentioned above, the study of alienation is not new. Yet, researchers and educators are still trying to determine the individual student factors that make some students (e.g., students with disabilities, students from diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, male students) more prone to feelings of alienation than others. One hypothesis holds that, with our increasingly diverse society, students who are somehow different (e.g., students with disabilities, students from diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, students from economically depressed backgrounds) are not buying into the value of schools and the educational process because schools do not represent who they are or their lives.
Past researchers indicated that these students (e.g., students from diverse backgrounds, students with disabilities, male students) were more affected by school policies (e.g., academic tracking, referral and placement in special education), teacher attitudes, and the fundamental beliefs and/or practices of the institution. Because of those policies, attitudes, and instructional practices, these students were often denied the full benefits of school membership (e.g., access to higher-level courses) and, therefore, were most likely to disengage (become alienated) from the schooling process (Calabrese, 1989; Calabrese & Poe, 1990; Cardenas & First, 1985; Davison-Aviles et al., 1999; Delgado-Gaitan, 1988; Fine, 1986; Rumberger & Larson, 1992). Ultimately, these are the students most likely to drop out of school (Calabrese & Poe, 1990; Davison-Aviles et al., 1999; Fine, 1986; Travis, 1995).
Alienation may be viewed as a result of pervasive social forces beyond school, such as specialization, mobility, bureaucratization, capitalism, or other features of the modern world that fragment human experience (Newmann, 1981). However, this perception does not excuse school improvement and does not justify abandoning the effort to create less alienating schools. So long as there is a possibility to improve school life for all students, schools and educators have a moral obligation to do so (Newmann, 1981). In order to create less alienating schools, educators, administrators, and parents must identify the characteristics within schools (e.g., unfair practices, policies, procedures, treatment of students by teachers and other school personnel) and within the students most at risk... |
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