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Description
The author investigated the relationships among the racial identity development status levels (preencounter, dissonance, immersion/resistance, and internalization) of 121 Native American college students and their preferences for counselor role (audience giving, approval giving, advice giving, and relationship giving). Participants most preferred a relationship-giving counseling style followed by an advice-giving style. The Internalization variable significantly predicted preferences for the audience-giving, advice-giving, and relationship-giving counselor roles. Implications for college counselors are provided.
Native Americans complete undergraduate degrees at a rate of 11.5% compared with 27.0% for the general population (Babco, 2005). Compared with all other racial groups, Native American undergraduates are the least likely to persist to the 2nd year (DuBrock, 1999; Smith, 1995). Incidence of psychological concerns may contribute to this population's relatively high attrition rate. Previous researchers found that college adjustment was negatively associated with the presence of psychological concerns (Baker & Siryk, 1999; Flescher, 1986). Correspondingly high rates of suicide (EchoHawk, 1997; Herring, 1994), drug abuse (Austin, 1988; Choney, Berryhill-Paapke, & Robbins, 1995), and alcohol-related deaths (Backover, 1991) all have been reported for Native American adults.
Furthermore, Native Americans with counseling concerns also tend to underutilize counseling services (Archer & Cooper, 1998; Choney et al., 1995; Garrett & Pichette, 2000). Consequently, college counselors need to better understand those factors that contribute to Native American student adjustment difficulties, attrition, and use of counseling.
The counselor's level of cultural responsiveness has been reported to be one factor important to Native American use of mental health services. This factor may include both actual and anticipated levels of counselor responsiveness. With respect to actual counselor behaviors, non--Native American counselors often fail to appropriately respond to Native American beliefs and values (LaFromboise, 1988; Robbins & Harrist, 2004). Importantly, the counselor's level of cultural responsiveness predicts not only Native American client engagement in the counseling process but also whether positive outcomes are achieved (Bland & Kraft, 1998; Dillard & Manson, 2000). With respect to anticipated counselor behaviors, Native American clients may not participate in counseling because of mistrust of non-Native American authority figures (Jackson & Turner, 2004; Manson & Trimble, 1982; Price & McNeil, 1992). Along these lines, Atkinson, Jennings, and Liongson (1990) found that Native American college students who anticipated lack of cultural responsiveness were more likely to avoid or decline file use of counseling services when needed.
When it comes to enhancing the counselor's level of cultural responsiveness, scholars tend to agree on the importance of factors, including familiarity with Native American values (Baruth & Manning, 2003; Garrett, 2003), the provision of client-centered qualities (i.e., genuineness, positive regard, and empathy; Dillard & Manson, 2000; Garrett, 2003), and the flexible application of traditional counseling approaches (Trimble, Fleming, Beauvais, & Jumper-Thurman, 1996; Vick, Smith, & Herrera, 1998). However, when it comes to adopting an effective counselor role, scholars alternately recommend a directive role (Axelson, 1999; Trimble & LaFromboise, 1985), a nondirective role (Tanaka-Matsumi & Higginbotham, 1996; Wise & Miller, 1983), mad the flexible application of a variety of roles (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1997; Bland & Kraft, 1998; Carter, 1995; Steenbarger, 1993). Counselors need a better understanding of role factors associated with positive outcomes (Dillard & Manson, 2000). For example, when Native American clients' preferences for counselor role are not confirmed in actual encounters with counselors, they tend to experience increased feelings of skepticism and mistrust, which are associated with negative counseling outcomes (Bland & Kraft, 1998). This may be a factor in the finding that Native American clients were twice as likely to drop out of counseling after a single session (Sue, Allen, & Conaway, 1981).
Native American Racial Identity Development and Preferences for Counselor Role
Researchers have asserted that acculturation level (e.g., traditional, bicultural) is a significant predictor of Native American client counseling preferences (Bichsel & Mallinckrodt, 2001; Garrett & Pichette, 2000). However, the potential influence of racial identity status factors (e.g., preencounter, immersion/resistance), which are believed to influence diverse client preferences for counselor role (Atkinson et al., 1990; Carter, 1998; Helms, 1995), has rarely, if ever, been investigated. Although some authors appear to regard acculturation level and racial identity status as interchangeable, these are two distinct constructs, which should not be substituted for one another in research (Waiters, 1999).
Furthermore, the significance of examining the potential contribution of racial identity statuses is supported by Helms's (1985, 1986, 1995) Interaction Model of multicultural counseling and development, which proposes that these statuses influence the preferences of diverse clients for counselor roles. Racial identity development has traditionally been viewed as a linear progression through a set of invariant and definable stages (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1993; Cross, 1971, 1995; Lee, 1997). By contrast, Helms (1994, 1995) conceived of racial identity development as a more fluid, multilevel process in which several statuses may coexist in a given individual's ego structure; thus, coexisting statuses may simultaneously influence attitudes toward counseling. Consequently, a primary purpose of this investigation was to examine whether Native American participants' racial identity status levels predict their preferences for counselor role.
Although more fluid than traditional stage models, the four status factors correspond to a progressively more mature racial worldview (Helms, 1995). The preencounter factor is associated with a lack of awareness of one's tribal history, a lack of personal relevance of interracial dynamics, and feelings of inferiority to European Americans. The dissonance factor is associated with internal conflict, including feelings of hurt and confusion, usually resulting from an encounter involving discrimination or prejudice. The immersion/resistance factor, which is associated with a lack of racial self-understanding, commonly entails anxiety, depression, hostility toward non-Native American people, and a desire to be the "right kind of Indian" (Mihesuah, 2003, p. 107). Last,... |
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