|
Article Excerpt
INTRODUCTION
Long thought to be a hidden, rare, and cultish phenomenon, polygyny is in fact practiced by an estimated 30,000 to 100,000 people in North America. (1) It has recently been the focus of an FBI "Most Wanted" national manhunt, a raid in a small Texas town, an issue in political elections, and even the subject of a hit TV show "Big Love." Although "polygamy" is defined as "the state or practice of having more than one spouse simultaneously," (2) most polygamists in the United States engage in "polygyny," or, "the condition or practice of having more than one wife at the same time." (3)
Polygynists (4) in the United States are generally Mormon fundamentalists who believe they are "the true keepers of the faith." (5) Though formally excommunicated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS"), fundamentalists continue to follow its founder Joseph Smith's belief, known as "the principle" or "the marriage revelation," that "a man need[s] at least three wives to attain the 'fullness of exaltation' in the afterlife." (6) More specifically, women "sealed with men for eternity" grant men the ability to reach the third and highest level of heaven where they become gods. (7)
There is no reliable census data on the number of polygynists living in the United States, (8) but it is believed that thirty to fifty thousand fundamentalist Mormons live in polygynist families and communities in the western U.S. alone. (9) A joint report issued by the attorneys general of Utah and Arizona estimated that 37,000 or more Mormon fundamentalists currently practice polygyny in those two states alone. (10) Tapestry Against Polygamy, a group formed by women who fled polygynous relationships and families, believes there may be as many as 100,000 practicing polygynists nationwide. (11) These fundamentalist sects flourish in Utah, Arizona, Idaho, California, and, more recently, Texas. The practice is illegal, and according to many, these theocracies foster incest, underage marriage, sexual abuse, rape, physical abuse, nonconsensual marriage, birth defects, welfare fraud, poverty, and a deprivation of education and other opportunities. (12) Not surprisingly, these problems overwhelmingly affect women and children.
Yet despite universal anti-polygamy legislation, state and federal governments have generally chosen not to take legal action against polygynists. Instead, government officials typically ignore polygynist communities and the abuses that occur therein with "a lot of secular eye-winking." (13) This paper will argue that state governments' failures to implement anti-polygamy laws have adversely affected polygynist women and children. In other words, by turning a blind eye to polygamy's negative ramifications, state governments indirectly condone and thus perpetuate abuse and neglect. Thus, if there is to be a rational policy in this area, it should consider the legalization of polygamy, thereby allowing greater regulation of the practice, compelling polygynous communities to emerge from the shadows, and openly assisting the women and children who live in them.
I. A BRIEF HISTORY OF POLYGAMY IN THE UNITED STATES
A. Polygamy in the Mormon Religion
On April 6, 1830 in Fayette, New York, Joseph Smith, Jr., along with five of his followers, founded the Mormon Church. (14) Smith had been inspired to establish the Church when an angel led him to gold plates, chronicling the story of ancient inhabitants from Israel who settled in the Western Hemisphere. (15) This experience was the basis of the Book of Mormon, which, along with the Bible and the Doctrine of Covenants, serves as the sacred text of the Church. (16) According to the Doctrine, in a revelation first received in 1831:
As pertaining to the law of the priesthood--if any man espouse a virgin, and desire to espouse another, and the first give her consent, and if he espouse the second, and they are virgins, and have vowed to no other man, then is he justified; he cannot commit adultery for they are given unto him; for he cannot commit adultery with that that belongeth unto him and to no one else. And if he have ten virgins given unto him by this law, he cannot commit adultery, for they belong to him, and they are given unto him; therefore is he justified. (17)
This particular revelation was not recorded until 1843 because Smith and other church leaders wanted to keep their polygynous marriages secret to avoid attacks by outsiders. (18)
After Smith was killed by a mob in Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1847, Brigham Young led most of the remaining Church adherents west to the Great Basin of Utah where he established "the state of Deseret." Isolated, the Mormons felt free to engage in the religious practices they believed God had commanded; and in 1852, polygyny was officially declared a tenet of the church. Apostle Orson Pratt publicly announced polygyny on August 29, 1852, at the end of a special conference held by Young. Pratt offered five reasons justifying the practice: (1) to fulfill God's commandment that Adam and Eve should "multiply and replenish the Earth;" (2) to embody God's covenant with Abraham to make his seed righteous and as plentiful as the sands of the seashore; (3) to demonstrate that monogamy was merely a historical "exception;" (4) to reform the world morally and socially, as opposed to monogamy, which invites immorality; and (5) to recognize that the spirit children of God wait for earthly "noble parentage" who help them "usher in the Kingdom of God." (19) At the same time, however, Pratt emphasized that only the prophet had the authority to perform "celestial marriages," and anyone who practiced polygyny had to bear great moral responsibility. (20)
In reality, the vast majority of Mormons never practiced polygyny. Even at its peak in the 1950s, no more than twenty percent of Mormons had polygynous relationships--although the practice was more prevalent among wealthy church leaders than the masses. (21)
B. Early Federal Legislation and Supreme Court Decisions Affecting Polygamous Practice
From the time it was officially endorsed by the Church in 1852, polygyny encountered strong federal opposition. In 1856, John Charles Fremont, the first Republican presidential candidate, made conquering the "twin relics of barbarism--polygamy and slavery" the focus of his campaign. (22) Although Fremont lost the election to James Buchanan, President Buchanan was also hostile to the Mormons' dominance in the Utah Territory. In June 1857, Buchanan appointed non-Mormons as government officials to reestablish federal order over the Territory. Twenty-five hundred federal troops accompanied the judicial and administrative officials to their new posts. (23) Young saw the arrival of the troops as an invasion, and the resulting "Mormon War" of 1857 stranded the U.S. Army near Salt Lake for the winter. (24)
The hegemony of the Republican Party during the Civil War paved the way for federal anti-polygamy legislation. In 1862, Senator Justin Morrill (R-VT) succeeded in passing the Morrill Act for the Suppression of Polygamy, which punished bigamy in any territory under federal jurisdiction with a "fine not exceeding five hundred dollars, and ... imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years." (25) For good measure, the Act tried to further cripple Mormonism by revoking the Church's incorporation and strictly limiting the Church's ability to hold real property. (26)
Angered by such government intrusion, the Mormons decided to challenge the constitutionality of the act. George Reynolds, a practicing polygynist and Brigham Young's personal secretary, agreed to be indicted for polygyny provided his punishment would be waived were he convicted. After several appeals, the Supreme Court agreed to hear Reynolds v. U.S.; and in 1878, eight justices, with one justice concurring, agreed that polygamy was illegal, declaring it an "odious" practice that offends society. (27) The Court found no constitutional right to practice polygamy, and assumed that Congress had the constitutional authority to pass the law. Looking to the Framers' intent, the Court noted that the colony of Virginia had accepted King James I's statute banning polygamy. (28) Given this brief history, the Court concluded that the Framers would never have intended the Freedom of Religion Clause to sanction polygamy. Finally, the Court distinguished between religious beliefs and actions, holding that the government can enact laws that restrict religious actions, but not beliefs. However, citing the practice of a widow burning herself on her husband's funeral pyre, the Court held that even the "professed doctrines of religious belief" cannot be superior to federal law. (29)
Despite the government's success in the Supreme Court, the Morrill Act failed to eradicate polygamy. To the contrary, Mormons grew more steadfast in their defense of what they perceived to be their fundamental religious beliefs. Ironically, perhaps, the local revolt against federal authority was endorsed by Mormon women. In 1870, the Utah Territory passed the Female Suffrage Bill, making it one of the first states or territories to grant the right to vote to all women. These newly enfranchised women then voted to maintain polygamy.
In 1874, Congress tried again, this time passing the Poland Act, which revoked the jurisdiction of the Utah county courts in all areas other than divorce. The act was intended to prevent Mormons from bringing their cases to county probate courts where Mormon ecclesiastical leaders served as judges. (30) Again, however, the Poland Act did not resolve the two problems inherent in convicting polygynists: first, that no witnesses would come forward to attest to polygynous behavior; and second, that no jury comprised of Mormons would convict a peer for a practice they condoned.
In 1882, Senator George Edmunds (R-VT) attempted to address these issues with the Edmunds Anti-Polygamy Act. The act prohibited mere cohabitation, thus relieving prosecutors of the burden of proving an actual marriage between a husband and another wife. The act further stated that any juror in a bigamy, polygamy, or cohabitation trial could be removed with "sufficient cause" if the juror himself was committing bigamy, engaging in polygamy, unlawfully cohabitating during the trial, or simply believed such practices were "right." (31) Finally, the act disenfranchised any polygamist, bigamist, or person illegally cohabitating. Prior to the Edmunds Act, the government had brought only seventy-eight indictments for polygyny. (32) After the Act, 1,300 Mormons were prosecuted. (33)
The Mormons challenged the jury restriction portion of the...
|
