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Article Excerpt
As of 2003, over four million individuals aged 20 or under were experiencing a disability, representing approximately 15 percent of all same-aged individuals (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2003). This represents a slightly higher incidence of disability than the 12.6 percent of working-age adults reporting a disability in 2005 (StatsRRTC, 2005). However, of working-age adults with disabilities, only 38.1 percent reported working, with only 22.6 percent working full-time for the full year (StatsRRTC, 2005). Smith (2007) noted that persons with disabilities continue to experience notably lower rates of employment than persons without disabilities and that interventions are needed to impact these discrepancies.
Mentorships are one example of an intervention aimed at decreasing risk factors and increasing the likelihood of success for persons with disabilities. Mentorships for individuals with disabilities have been widely advocated, although not well-researched (Coombs-Richardson, 2002; Powers, Sowers, & Stevens, 1995; Snowden, 2003; Sword & Hill, 2003; Whelley, Radtke, Burgstahler, & Christ, 2003; Wilson, 2003). DuBois and Rhodes (2006), in establishing a national research agenda for youth mentoring, called for "best practice" program descriptions that produce positive outcomes. The purpose of this article is to describe two related, but independent mentorship programs for secondary and post-secondary students with disabilities. Descriptions on the recruitment, orientation, design, and evaluation of the two programs will be highlighted. Outcome data, where available, will be included.
Purpose and Benefits of Mentorship Programs with Students with Disabilities
Mentoring has been defined as a "dyadic psychosocial intervention in which an older individual is brought into a close relationship with a younger person in order to provide support, guidance, and opportunities for social and academic development" (Karcher, Nakkula, & Harris, 2005, p. 94). Mentoring relationships, or mentorships, are created in order to provide support and counsel to the mentee or protege in areas of academic, career, or social competence (Coombs-Richardson, 2002; Rhodes, Grossman, & Roffman, 2002) and increase the mentees' ability to navigate during a transition period (Karcher et al., 2005). Typical outcomes of mentorships include improved academic attendance and performance, improved self-worth and self-determination, and a close relationship with a positive adult role model that may be lacking in the lives of many mentees (Grossman & Rhodes, 2002; Hamilton & Hamilton, 2002; Karcher et al., 2005; Rhodes, Grossman, & Resch, 2000; Rhodes et al., 2002; Rhodes, Reddy, Roffman, & Grossman, 2005; Rhodes, Spencer, Keller, Liang, & Noam, 2006). "The idea of mentoring is firmly rooted in the commonsense belief that it is good for a young person to have a close relationship with a caring older person, other than a parent, who can teach and advise and simply be an adult in her or his presence" (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2002, p. 63).
Not surprisingly, mentorships have been widely advocated for individuals with disabilities, emphasizing their need for positive role models who have successfully navigated the lived experience of a disability (Coombs-Richardson, 2002; Knight, 2000; Powers, Sowers, & Stevens, 1995; Snowden, 2003; Sword & Hill, 2003; Whelley et al., 2003; Wilson, 2003). Mentorships for individuals with disabilities are especially advocated during times of transition from high school to college as well as from post-secondary education to employment and careers (Snowden, 2003; U.S. Department of Labor, 2006; Whelley et al.; Wilson). "The transition from K-12 education to the world of work or higher education is both a trying and exciting time for most young adults, but it can be particularly stressful for students with disabilities" (Wilson, p. 2). Mentorship programs aimed at these periods are designed to ease transitional anxieties, improve social competence, and improve the disability-related skill set and motivation needed to succeed (Burgstahler, 2002, 2003, 2006; Coombs-Richardson; Powers et al.; Wilson).
Since higher education is clearly a pathway for individuals with disabilities to better employment, higher income, and a greater quality of life (Bond, Wehman, & Wittenburg, 2005; Graf & Whelley, n.d.; Wilson, Getzel, & Brown, 2000), mentorship programs that improve students' chances of success in higher education are important. This is especially true for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and careers, in which challenges are even greater for many individuals with disabilities (Burgstahler, 2002, 2003, 2006; Coombs-Richardson, 2002; Whelley et al., 2003). While students with disabilities share similar concerns about employment, social acceptance, and living independently as students without disabilities, they are often discouraged--both subtly and not so subtly--to study and enter STEM fields (Coombs-Richardson). Thus, mentorship programs, designed to address both lifestyle and career issues, increase in importance for students with disabilities.
Mentorship programs, however, need to be well planned and designed, and have both a comprehensive implementation and evaluation plan in place prior to initiation (Grossman & Rhodes, 2002). An important part of that plan includes details on optimal mentee/mentor selection and matching criteria (Karcher et al., 2005; Viadero, 2006). Consideration needs to be given to mentor and mentee orientation and training concerning their respective roles and expectations as well as the structure of the program (Rhodes et al., 2002). And importantly, sufficient resources (i.e., time, budget, and staff) need to be allocated to ensure the successful and smooth operation of the overall experience. Rhodes et al. reported that the most successful programs are those which have adequate supports in place (screening, training, continued oversight, etc.) that enable mentors and mentees to form strong relationships that are of higher quality and longer lasting, which in turn lead to mentees deriving more positive benefits from the match.
The lack of these considerations may be one reason why nearly 50 percent of mentorships terminate within the first or second month,...
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