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Article Excerpt
Conceptions of metaphor have been numerous and varied over the centuries, ranging from the general to the specific. The origin of the word can be found in the Latin metaphora and the Greek metapherin, which mean "to transfer" (Peeks, 1989). Although metaphors have almost limitless possibilities, some modern authors have chosen to interpret the term in a more restrictive manner. For example, Kopp (1971) defined a metaphor as "a way of speaking in which one thing is expressed in terms of another, whereby this bringing together throws new light on the character of what is being described" (p. 269). Kopp's use of the word speaking, however, appears to limit the definition of metaphor to verbal expression. Using Kopp's definition, the use of therapeutic metaphor would be reserved for individuals who have developed the linguistic abilities required for this mode of communication. Children who do not have these skills would be viewed as incapable of using metaphor to express themselves.
A variety of studies have been undertaken to examine whether children have the capacity to comprehend verbal metaphors. Some investigators (e.g., Vosniadou & Ortony, 1983) have found that preschool and early elementary school children do, indeed, have the ability to comprehend at least some verbal metaphors. Others (e.g., Winner, Rosensteil, & Gardner, 1976) have reported that children's ability to interpret metaphors improves with age. When Waggoner and Palermo (1989) studied the relationship between metaphors and simple emotions in 5-, 7-, and 9-year-old children, they found that children were able to understand metaphors, such as a "bouncing bubble" to indicate happiness and a "hiding leaf" to suggest fear, but had more difficulty comprehending abstract (e.g., "special moment" to represent love) as opposed to concrete (e.g., "bucking horse" for anger) metaphors. In a follow-up study, Waggoner, Palermo, and Kirsh (1997) found that children were able to provide a rationale for their choice, even when the metaphor appeared to be incorrect. For example, one first grader chose fear as her interpretation for the bouncing bubble metaphor. As Waggoner et al. stated, the child "explained the choice saying that a bubble that bounces around is probably afraid that it will hit something and pop" (p. 226). This child's explanation highlights the personal meaning of metaphors. That is, two children might use the same term (e.g., bouncing bubble) to express different thoughts and feelings. Counselors must remember this when they attempt to interpret the meaning of clients' metaphors.
Although children who have reached a certain developmental level may be able to understand metaphors, those with limited language skills are unlikely to express themselves using verbal metaphors. Young children, however, routinely use nonverbal forms of communication to express themselves. One example is children's play, which can serve functions that are similar to adults' use of verbal metaphor in which one event is linked to another in a nonliteral way (Evans, 1988). In this article, we propose that the traditional definition of metaphor as a form of verbal communication be expanded to include nonverbal forms of expression. This is especially relevant for children, who express internal thoughts and emotions through play with or without the accompanying verbal discourse (Bowman, 1995).
As Landreth (1993) observed, children's communication is "facilitated by the use of toys as their words and play as their language" (p. 41). Drucker (1994) described her view of the relationship between symbols and metaphors as follows:
Symbolization and metaphorizing are taken as alternative terms for a particular phenomenon: A metaphor here is understood to be the embodiment of a notion in form, a casting of experience from one domain into another. This is a much broader use of the term than one would find in a linguistic discussion of metaphor as a figure of speech. (p. 66)
Drucker's (1994) definition of metaphor includes not only associations used in language but also any thought or experience that is taken from one area and represented in another. Accordingly, children's symbolic play qualifies as a metaphor for their mental representations of self in the context of the cultural surround. Dubowski (1990) provided an interesting example of a child who drew a picture of his oftentimes absent and other times inconsistent father. Upon viewing his creation, the boy changed the drawing into a balloon and said, "Daddy is a balloon" (p. 18). Dubowski suggested that this may have been the child's metaphorical representation of the father, "whose visits are infrequent, have little substance, and are prone to burst or fly away" (p. 18).
Other authors have proposed broad definitions of metaphor in reference to children. Frey (1993) contended that in addition to verbal discourse, art, music, and games are modalities by which children can express themselves metaphorically. These avenues of self-expression provide children with the opportunity to represent their internal world in an active and more concrete manner. Peeks (1989) made a distinction between literary metaphors, which clarify ideas, and behavioral metaphors, which offer insight into one's social context. According to Peeks's model, play serves as a behavioral metaphor that children use to communicate thoughts and feelings about their internal and external worlds.
Sims and Whynot (1997) extended the definition of metaphor to refer to family processes. They described metaphor as a form of family communication in which "the resemblance (or identity) of one thing with another is asserted" (p. 342). The similarity can be either explicit or implicit. This broad definition includes language, but also encompasses physical movement (e.g., dance), drawing, and sculpture. In this way, both verbal and nonverbal processes are incorporated into family treatment and can be the subject of therapeutic intervention.
Freeman, Epston, and Lobovits (1997) described a case involving the use of therapeutic metaphor with families. The clinician used the metaphor of a coin to illustrate two contrasting metaphors in the family: the parents desire to "weed out" (p. 239) their bad son's behavior in the context of "a closeknit-family" (p. 240). As the counselor stated,
You try and weed out the person from the behavior and you value him as a person and knit him into family love and appreciation. Is this the way that this family is struggling with how to put together the weeding style--where you pull hard or cut firmly--with the knitting style, where you pay attention and you walk with care and gentleness? (Freeman et al., 1997, p. 244)
Just as verbal metaphor can be a beneficial tool in counseling with adults (Lyddon, Clay, & Sparks, 2001), the metaphorical use of play, including artistic and other creative activities, has been used to facilitate therapeutic change in children and families. As Slade (1994) stated, "Adults figure out how they feel by talking it through; very young children figure it out by playing about it" (p. 91). Through the metaphor of play, young clients are able to explore the meaning of their world and express this view using hands-on interventions with that world. According to Neimeyer (1993), "People constitute and are constituted by the stories that they live and the stories that they tell" (p. 226). When applied to young people, this quote might be restated as "Children constitute and are constituted by the stories that they live and the stories that they play."
* Development of Metaphorical Ability
Piaget (1962) believed that as children develop, they become increasingly able to separate the symbol from what it represents. Toddlers begin to exhibit pretend play by imitating their own actions, such as sleeping and eating. In these instances, the symbol and symbolization are closely related. Feeding a doll requires a greater degree of cognitive development as the symbol and symbolization are further separated. That is, play behavior represents the child's self-directed action toward a separate object. The separation between symbol and symbolization is greater when the child uses one object to stand for another or assumes the role of another person (Bretherton, 1984). For example, children can "become" their parent and act in ways that are consistent with this role. The child who uses a spoon to represent a sword is illustrating the use of an object to stand for something else. Irwin (1983) described the relationship as an "as if" stance, in which children relate one thing to another and behave as if it were the symbolic object. This relationship need not be consciously recognized by the child for the play to be symbolic.
Children's symbolic play serves a variety of functions (Irwin, 1983; Landreth, 1993). First, it helps them gain an understanding of their experiences. Through play, children process unfamiliar situations using a familiar medium to reenact and explore relevant life events. By doing so, they are able to develop a sense of insight about the world. Second, through symbolic play, children are able to express and deal with their emotions in a nonthreatening way. Indirect expression through play is considered to be less anxiety provoking than the direct verbal discussion of emotionally distressing events. Thus, even older children who have the ability to use verbal metaphor may rely upon play to process uncomfortable and significant life experiences. Third, children can gain a sense of perceived control through symbolic play. In unstructured symbolic play, the child is able to direct the play process and outcome. This type of play provides an opportunity for problem solving and mastery experiences, which are important for healthy emotional development and positive self-esteem. Because of these positive functions, play frequently has been incorporated into therapeutic interventions with children.
* Metaphor as a Therapeutic Tool With Children
Through play, children in counseling express their view of themselves, their view of others, their anxieties and conflicts, and their way of conceptualizing and solving problems in the world (Irwin, 1983). But it is important to remember that children are not the only producers of metaphor. Counselors also use metaphors for the purpose of facilitating therapeutic change. We now examine the characteristics of different types of metaphor. Later in the article, we discuss how children, clinicians, and families use this form of expression in counseling.
Types of Metaphor
Historically, the term play therapy has been used to describe a range of techniques that are intended to facilitate healthy development in children (Wagner, 2003). These include methods based on psychodynamic (Klein, 1932), client-centered (Axline, 1947; Landreth, 2002), and cognitive-behavioral (Knell, 1998) principles. Clinicians who use these approaches with young clients often combine verbal and nonverbal metaphors in counseling. In this section, we examine specific treatment techniques that counselors use with children. First, we explore the use of toys and therapeutic play materials that most children find enjoyable. We then turn to the therapeutic uses of art and children's literature.
Metaphor through play materials. Child counselors routinely use toys to encourage clients to enact and reenact significant life events. Similar to narrative therapy with adults, wherein clients tell...
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