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Article Excerpt
Abstract. The policies underlying the specific learning disability (SLD) regulations in the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) are analyzed. The analysis focuses on the Response-to-Intervention (RTI) provision ("if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention") as a diagnostic model, revealing that it is conceptually flawed, practically inadequate, and politically rather than scientifically motivated. It is argued that RTI is best described as a model for providing remedial reading (prereferral) services for students experiencing early reading failure. To achieve a reliable and valid diagnosis of SLD under IDEA, it is argued that a comprehensive psychometric assessment is required. With a model that combines RTI and cognitive assessments, it is possible to provide an identification process that closely aligns with the best current conceptualizations of SLD.
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The field of special education is facing a significant policy debate about the identification procedures used for specific learning disability (SLD). The debate surrounds a process termed Response-to-Intervention (RTI), which is a "comprehensive assessment and intervention process utilizing a problem-solving framework to identify and address student academic difficulties using effective, efficient researched-based instruction" (Cortiella, 2006, p. 2). Although proposed in the IDEA provisions for SLD identification, implementation of RTI appears to have transcended the boundaries of special education to include significant implications for general education. Consequently, perhaps up to one third of students in the public schools will be directly affected by RTI, with more indirect implications for the remaining two thirds.
Kavale and Forness (2000) demonstrated how inclusion escalated into debate, not only about students with disabilities, but about the education of all students. Kavale and Forness also demonstrated that support for inclusion was primarily ideological and political rather than strictly empirical. As such, the debate becomes what Sowell (2002) termed a "conflict of visions"--different views of how the world works that set the agenda for both thought and action. Sowell suggested that a vision "is what we sense or feel before we have constructed any systematic reasoning that could be called a theory ... a vision is a sense of causation" (pp. 4-6).
According to Sowell (1995), at times, one vision may come to predominate over others to such an extent that it represents the prevailing vision for that time and place, usually because of the presumed authority position of an elite intelligentsia. This is termed the "vision of the anointed," while all others are said to hold the "vision of the benighted." Because of its ascendancy, the vision of the anointed is preferred in formulating policy, while the vision of the benighted is to be ignored because it is "at best 'perceptions,' more often 'stereotypes,' and more bluntly 'false consciousness'" (p. 187).
Particularly for special education, the vision of the anointed is to be preferred because it also includes assumptions about compassion and caring, which are viewed as their special province. Thus, the vision of the anointed is "not merely factually correct but morally on a higher plane" (p. 23). In contrast, the vision of the benighted should not be considered because "the benighted are to be made 'aware,' to have their 'consciousness raised,' and the wistful hope is held out that they will 'grow'" (p. 3).
Kavale and Forness (2000) demonstrated how the inclusion debate was dominated by the vision of the anointed. Beginning with the least restrictive environment articulated in PL 94-142, the Regular Education Initiative where education was viewed as a "shared responsibility" (Will, 1986), through "full inclusion" (Gartner & Lysky, 1989), the vision of the anointed dominated position statements of professional organizations (e.g., Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 1992; Council of Chief State School Officers, 1992; National Association of State Boards of Education, 1992). Hence, inclusion was the preferred policy because it was viewed as a "good thing" (just, essential, democratic, liberating), even though "'reality' painted a less sanguine picture about the general education classroom being the sole placement option for educating students with disabilities" (Kavale & Mostert, 2003, p. 203).
The RTI debate is also predicated on it being a "good thing." As Sowell (1995) suggested, the vision of the anointed "is a vision of differential rectitude [where] problems exist because others are not as wise or as virtuous as the anointed" (p. 5). Consequently, any different rendering of reality must be dismissed as either uninformed or irresponsible, and superseded by the vision of the anointed, usually through the power of government.
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the RTI debate as a conflict of visions. Proponents of RTI will be assumed to hold the vision of the anointed, while the authors will represent the vision of the benighted.
RESPONSE-TO-INTERVENTION: THE WHAT AND HOW
The foundation of the vision of the anointed surrounds RTI, the core concepts of which include the systematic (a) application of scientific, research-based interventions in general education settings, (b) measurement of a student's response to those interventions, and (c) use of data to inform instruction (Mellard, 2004). Basically, RTI serves an accountability function to answer the question: Does instruction result in increased learning and acceptable progress?
The RTI concept grew out of concerns expressed about SLD identification (e.g., misidentification, over-identification, problematic criteria) (Bradley, Danielson, & Hallahan, 2002; Donovan & Cross, 2002; Finn, Rotherham, & Hokanson, 2001; Learning Disabilities Roundtable, 2005; Pasternak, 2002; President's Commission on Excellence in Special Education, 2002). The primary concern focused on problems with the discrepancy model, which led to a "paradigm shift" (i.e., a new vision) (Reschly, 2004) centering on the concept of treatment validity, whereby it is possible "to simultaneously inform, foster and document the necessity for and effectiveness of special treatment" (L. Fuchs & D. Fuchs, 1998). With respect to SLD classification, Berninger and Abbot (1994) explored
going beyond defining learning disability as a discrepancy between achievement and ability (based on static, one-shot assessment of either IQ or listening comprehension) to a broader view of learning disability based on dynamic assessment failure to respond, over time, to validated intervention protocols. (p. 165)
Gresham (2002) reinforced this view at the LD Summit by suggesting that "children who fail to respond to empirically validated treatments implemented with integrity might be identified as LD" (p. 499). The Learning Disabilities Roundtable (2005) affirmed the importance of RTI and recommended that IDEA regulations "require that the essential core concepts of a responsiveness-to-intervention process have been employed." Accordingly, the reauthorization of IDEA 2004 (PL 108-446) indicated that: "a local educational agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures." Thus, the reauthorization of IDEA in 2004 described RTI as an intervention that provides (a) data for more effective and early identification of students with SLD, and (b) a systematic way to ensure that students experiencing educational difficulties receive more timely and effective support (Boardman & Vaughn, 2007; National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities [NJCLD], 2005).
To aid implementation of RTI procedures for SLD identification, the National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD) was established (e.g., Deshler, Mellard, Tollefson, & Byrd, 2005; D. Fuchs, Deshler, & Reschly, 2004; Mellard, Byrd, Johnson, Tollefson, & Boesche, 2004). The NRCLD was charged with addressing the following questions: (a) How is RTI used in the process of SLD identification? and Co) Does RTI enhance SLD identification? Another stipulated purpose of RTI was to "redefine" SLD as inadequate response to instruction that would permit (a) identification of students using a risk rather than a deficit model; (b) early identification and instruction of students with SLD; (c) reduction of identification bias (i.e., higher probability that identified students are truly those with greatest academic needs); and (d) connecting identification assessment with instructional planning and progress monitoring (Vaughn & L. Fuchs, 2003, pp. 139-141).
Although originally focused on SLD identification as outlined in IDEA 2004, RTI was soon viewed as a means whereby "schools don't wait for formal identification of a learning disability, but instead start providing targeted interventions early on" (West Ed, 2006, p. 1). The School Social Work Association of America (SSWAA, 2006) expanded the scope of RTI by terming it "a systematic, multi-tiered approach to helping all [italics added] students achieve school success" (p. 1). The National Association of School Psychologists endorsed this view of the RTI process by indicating that it is a "provision of scientific research-based instruction and interventions in general education [that] provides an improved process and structure for school teams in designing, implementing, and evaluating educational interventions [that may be] part [italics added] of the evaluation procedures for special education eligibility" (Klotz & Canter, 2006, pp. 1-2). Finally, a group of 13 national organizations (Collaborative Project, 2006) issued a report entitled "New roles in response to intervention: Creating success for schools and children" (2006), wherein RTI was described as follows, "To meet the needs of all students, the educational system must use its collective resources to intervene early and provide appropriate interventions and supports to prevent learning and behavioral problems from becoming larger issues" (p. 2).
When the vision of the anointed is examined, it appears that the primary intent of RTI is not perceived uniformly. From one perspective, the purpose of the NRCLD was to provide "assistance on issues in the area of identification and assessment of children with learning disabilities" (Deshler et al., 2005, p. 484). Bradley, Davidson, and Doolittle (2005) endorsed this view by indicating that the Learning Disabilities Initiative "has been focused on a more efficient and effective process for determining specific learning disability eligibility" (p. 485). Yet, statements from major organizations suggest another perspective, whereby SLD identification is not viewed as a major purpose of RTI. For example, in a joint paper by the National Association of State Directors of Special Education (NASDSE) and the Council of Administrators of Special Education (CASE) (2006), the stated goal of RTI is "to engage the general education community in conversations and strategies to provide knowledge and technical assistance to help implement this successful approach [i.e., RTI] to teaching all children, including students with disabilities" (p. 1). The focus shifted to general education where the NASDSE/CASE paper represents "a call from the special education community to the general education community to join together to commit to a uniform system of education, where RTI plays a key role in identifying and working with struggling learners in any setting ..." (p. 2). In fact, NASDSE (2006) clearly stated that, "Special education eligibility decisions can be a product of these efforts, but is not the primary goal" (p. 1).
The vision of the anointed appears not to be uniform with respect to the goal of RTI. On one hand, the goal of RTI is to deliver evidence-based interventions and use students' response to determine educational needs (e.g., NASDSE, 2006) while, on the other hand, the goal is to redefine SLD through operationalizing RTI procedures (Vaughn & L. Fuchs, 2003). With different views about the purpose of RTI, emerging models may differ significantly in form and function and thus may not be compatible. Will agencies have to choose the purpose they prefer? If the delivery of instruction is primary, how will SLD be identified? If SLD identification is primary, then why include all children in RTI, even students with disabilities, who presumably have already been identified?
We believe that enhanced SLD identification is not a goal of the RTI anointed. Support for this view is found in statements noting the presumed advantages of RTI: "Most significant is that the focus shifts from eligibility to concerns about providing effective instruction" (Fletcher, Coulter, Reschly, & Vaughn, 2004, p. 311; see also Boardman & Vaughn, 2007). Although the goal of providing effective instruction is meritorious, we believe the real goal of RTI is to foster greater collaboration with general education and essentially create a unified system without an independent special education (see Batsche et al., 2005). Hollenbeck (2007) stressed the general education aspect of RTI: "With its emphasis on improving general education for all learners, RTI has the potential to positively impact students across educational settings" (p. 144). Fletcher et al. (2004) endorsed the general education emphasis in RTI by suggesting that RTI "approaches facilitate the integration of general and special education around instruction,...
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