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Article Excerpt
Although there are various definitions o/wellness, few conceptual definitions have addressed the contextual dimensions of wellness relative to African American counselors. The authors present an overview of generic models of wellness, discuss factors that both inhibit and promote wellness, offer some culture-specific models of wellness, and address implications for future research.
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In recent years, the issue of promoting wellness has gained considerable interest among counseling, human development, and medical professionals (Constantine & Sue, 2006; J. E. Myers, 1992; J. E. Myers, Madathil, & Tingle, 2005; Prilleltensky & Prilleltensky, 2003). Although wellness does not constitute a new domain for counselors, it appears to be so because historically the profession has maintained a mental health orientation that emphasizes the treatment of pathology rather than the application of interventions that optimize human potential. The promotion of wellness has been linked to several populations, such as children (Cicchetti, Rappaport, Sandier, & Weissberg, 2000), patients with AIDS (Holt, Houg, & Romano, 1999), teachers (Queen & Queen, 2003), and persons with physical and mental illness (Sperry, Lewis, Carlson, & Englar-Carlson, 2005). However, for the past 2 decades, the holistic notion of wellness in counseling has received less attention and, consequently, the focus on developmental theories and wellness strategies have been underemphasized (J. E. Myers, 1992).
J. E. Myers (1991) defined wellness as the "maximizing of human potential through positive life-style choices" (p. 183). In another definition, Ardell (1985) emphasized that wellness is a conscious and intentional approach to an advanced state of physical and psychological/spiritual health. In order to illustrate the distinction between health and wellness, Greenberg (1985) offered a definition of wellness that integrates social, mental, emotional, spiritual, and physical components, where a high level of wellness is exhibited when the components are balanced. He further commented that health is typically defined as the absence of illness, whereas wellness emphasizes a zest and enthusiasm for life.
Within the counseling literature, two models of wellness have emerged: the Wheel of Wellness (J. E. Myers, Sweeney, & Witmer, 2000) and the Indivisible Self (J. E. Myers & Sweeney, 2005) models. These models characterize holistic constructions of wellness and prevention over the life span and encompass both a multidisciplinary focus and theoretical grounding in Adlerian individual psychology. The Wheel model is composed of five life tasks that are essential to optimal wellness: spirituality, self-direction, work and leisure, friendship, and love. The self-direction life task includes 12 additional tasks necessary for wellness: sense of worth, sense of control, realistic beliefs, emotional awareness and coping, problem solving and creativity, sense of humor, nutrition, exercise, self-care, stress management, gender identity, and cultural identity. The Wheel of Wellness highlights the overlaps of these various domains of wellness, which can ultimately help counselors understand clients as individuals and as part of their respective environments.
The second model, the Indivisible Self, is more evidence-based and incorporates 17 wellness dimensions and five "selves": the essential sell social sell creative sell physical sell and coping self (J. E. Myers & Sweeney, 2005). The essential self is composed of four components: spirituality, self-care, gender identity, and cultural identity. The creative self consists of thinking, emotions, control, positive humor, and work. The coping self includes four components: realistic beliefs, stress management, self-worth, and leisure. The social self consists of two components: friendship and love. The physical self includes two components: exercise and nutrition. The Indivisible Self model also considers four contexts: local, institutional, global, and chronometrical.
Despite the growing emphasis on wellness and models of wellness in the counseling literature, the examination of counselors' wellness has received surprisingly little attention. Even more surprising is the omission of a discussion regarding the cultural implications of counselors' wellness (Lee, 2005). It is well established that people of color experience greater disparities in health and quality of life than do European Americans (Smith, 1998). Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky (2003) argued that mental health professionals cannot separate wellness from issues of social justice, and we concur. More specifically, Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky argued that wellness operates at three interrelated levels that must remain in sync with one another: personal, relational, and collective. At the personal level, people need to be able to exercise control over their lives in a manner that leads to personal empowerment. Relational needs involve a concern for humanity and respect for diversity. Collective needs are focused on economic well-being, safety, and security, which are embodied within the principles of social justice, equality, and structural change.
The model proposed by Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky (2003) has particular utility for people from oppressed backgrounds and histories who must contend with poverty, marginalization, exclusion, exploitation, and injustice. Clearly, these experiences have an impact on one's ability to achieve wellness and, therefore, can operate as barriers to the promotion of wellness. Regardless of improvements in family income, education, and housing, counseling professionals of color may still be challenged by marginalization, exclusion, and injustice. These stressors represent conditions that the aforementioned models of wellness do not capture in any substantive manner. Therefore, special attention should be given to factors that both compromise and promote the wellness of counselors who represent historically oppressed groups. Perhaps, as we maintain later in this article, Constantine and Sue's (2006) model of optimal human functioning best incorporates the manifestations of wellness for people of colon
This article addresses the contextual dimensions of wellness among African Americans counselors. We begin with a discussion of factors that compromise wellness, such as racism and discrimination. Initially, we document the impact of racism on numerous racial and cultural groups in U.S. society in order to call attention to the pervasive and destructive consequences of systemic inequality; we then address the specific and unique impact of dominance on African Americans. Although racism does not constitute the only obstacle to wellness that African American counselors must surmount, we highlight the peculiar institution of racism because other barriers to wellness, such as balancing family and work, may function more as shared concerns among counselors, irrespective of race. That said, we also acknowledge at the outset that intraracial tensions may interfere with healthy functioning; however, these issues are outside the scope of the current discussion (Day-Vines, Patton, & Baytops, 2003). Later in the article, we enumerate two culture-specific models of wellness and their application to African American counselors. We then discuss implications for future research.
THE IMPACT OF RACISM AND DISCRIMINATION ON PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
Racism has had an enduring impact on people of color in this society, and, over a protracted period of time, the experience of victimization has compromised the physical and psychological well-being of many people...
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