|
Article Excerpt
This article outlines ways by which counselor educators may prepare counselors and counselor trainees to be advocates for survivors of partner abuse. Advocacy strategies for counselors and counselor trainees working with survivors of partner abuse are provided, integrating the 5 components of collaboration, context, competence, critical consciousness, and community (E. McWhirter, 1998) within an ecological framework.
**********
Partner abuse, one of the primary types of domestic violence, is a public health concern that has been minimally addressed in the counseling profession because it is often viewed as a private family problem lying outside counselors' responsibility (Berry, 2000; Nabi & Horner, 2001; Violence Against Women Office, 2001). Partner abuse involves an interpersonal system of a perpetrator and direct and indirect victims of domination. It is a complex phenomenon that may lead to a cycle of physical, emotional, and psychological violence by which victims increasingly engage in self-devaluation and learned helplessness, potentially facilitating a cycle of intergenerational trauma (Aron & Lorion, 2003; Skyner & Waters, 1999; Walker, 1982). It may also involve the use of coercion, humiliation, and control using physical, sexual, and/or emotional aggression (Berry, 2000; Geffner & Rosenbaum, 2001; Goodyear-Smith & Laidlaw, 1999).
The purpose of this article is to provide advocacy counseling strategies for partner abuse interventions that may be encouraged during counselor preparation. Advocacy counseling may be defined as counselors "leaving their offices" to promote individual, social, and institutional changes through both direct and indirect services (Kiselica & Robinson, 2001, p. 387). Partner abuse is defined in this article as violence or threats of violence between two individuals involved in an intimate relationship, including adolescent relationships. Advocacy counseling for survivors of partner abuse involves providing interventions that promote client empowerment, create sociopolitical changes, and support client and community welfare. Because a majority of survivors are women (Berry, 2000; Walker, 1982), this article focuses on prevalence, risk factors, issues and interventions tailored to their experiences, and how counselor educators and supervisors prepare practitioners for engaging in such tasks.
Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Issues of Partner Abuse
Approximately 95% of all battered victims are women (Berry, 2000), and partner abuse is the leading cause of injuries requiring hospitalization for these women (Stark & Flitcraft, 1988). Violent crimes occur more frequently among family members than strangers (Strauss & Gelles, 1990), with an estimated 16% of marriages affected each year and approximately 50%-60% of all marriages over their course (McKay, 1994). Women who experience partner abuse may remain in violent relationships because of potential retaliation by the perpetrator (Lee, Thompson, & Mechanic, 2002). Statistics demonstrate that there is an increased risk of retaliation: At least 1,500 women are killed by a current or former partner each year (Berry, 2000). Over their lifetime, approximately 8.2% of women will experience stalking, 18.2% rape, and 51.8% physical assault (Fantuzzo, Boruch, & Beriama, 1997). Further, approximately half of women who experience partner abuse are also subjected to rape and stalking (Berry, 2000).
Risk factors for abuse survivors include isolation, feelings of helplessness, vulnerability, maintenance of secrecy, indecision, poor self-confidence, low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and an impaired ability to judge the trustworthiness of others (Berry, 2000; Miller, Veltkamp, & Kraus, 1997). Approximately 30%-50% of partner abuse survivors experience symptoms of depression, and 50% experience symptoms related to post-traumatic stress disorder and other anxiety disorders (Campbell, 2001; Gelles & Harrop, 1989; Housekamp & Foy, 1991). Symptoms may include acute injuries, hyperarousal, intrusive symptoms, confusion, disorganization, denial, insomnia, psychosomatization, diminished psychological functioning with subsequent decrements in occupational and interpersonal functioning (Lee et al., 2002), agitation, and dissociative features (Miller et al., 1997). Additionally, battering contributes to at least 25% of all suicide attempts by women (Berry, 2000).
It is estimated that up to 90% of battered women never report their abuse. This may occur for several reasons. First, survivors may experience stigma or place themselves at greater risk if they report the violence. Thus, experiences of discrimination and safety concerns discourage women from reporting unless the abuse is quite severe (Nabi, Southwell, & Hornik, 2002). Second, although partner abuse has been documented in every race, religion, socioeconomic status, and education level (Strauss & Gelles, 1990; Wray et al., 2004), it is difficult to estimate statistics because of cultural differences regarding conceptualization and level of tolerance surrounding partner abuse (Nabi et al., 2002; Osofsky, 2003; Wray et al., 2004). Finally, underreporting of partner abuse may relate to the nature of the cycle of violence for women, keeping women in abusive relationships (Walker, 1982).
Intergenerational Abuse
Domestic violence is a cross-generational issue with a strong link between partner and child abuse within a family (McKay, 1994). Estimates for child abuse in homes where partner abuse is occurring range from 60% to 77% (Bowker, Arbitell, & McFerron, 1988; Strauss & Gelles, 1990). When children witness family violence, they are at a higher risk for becoming either victims or perpetrators of violence (Campbell, 2001; Osofsky, 2003). Additionally, they may exhibit fears of death or loss of a parent, aggressive behaviors, running-away behaviors, substance abuse, depression, suicide, anxiety, sleep disturbances, impaired academic and social functioning, or a sense of responsibility for the violence (Berry, 2000; Osofsky, 2003; Wolfe, Wekerle, Reitzel, & Gough, 1995). This exposure may create an increased risk of behavioral problems and interpersonal difficulties with peers and future romantic partners. In families where partner abuse is evident, children learn that (a) violence is an appropriate way to resolve conflict, (b) violence is a part of family relationships, (c) the...
|
