...indicate the foreign-born population 28 million to 31 million (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002). This means that 1 out of every 10 people in the United States comes from an immigrant or refugee background, with 1 in 5 born in another country or with at least one parent born in another nation (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002).

Immigrants have historically moved to established ethnic communities in the United States located in California, New York, Texas, Florida, New Jersey, and Illinois. In recent years, there has been a substantial increase of immigrant groups who have migrated to various states in New England, the Midwest, and the Rocky Mountain region (Lyman, 2006). For example, from 2000 to 2005, the immigrant population increased 48% in Arkansas, 44% in South Dakota, 34% in Indiana, 32% in Delaware, 31% in Missouri, 28% in Colorado, and 26% in New Hampshire (The Urban Institute, 2007). These states are not accustomed to such racial/ethnic diversity and have little history of or experience in integrating immigrants into their local communities (Layton & Keating, 2006).

Given the rapidly changing racial/ethnic/cultural demographics of the United States and the increasing annual number of immigrants to the United States, mental health professionals need to develop new competencies that will enable them to work more effectively and respectfully with immigrant and refugee clients. With this in mind, the aim of this article is threefold. First, it provides an overview of the characteristics and status of immigrants (those who voluntarily migrate), refugees (those who are forced to migrate), and undocumented immigrants (the term undocumented immigrants is used throughout this article to refer to illegal immigrants because the latter term is viewed as derogatory by many immigrants and immigrant advocates). Particular attention is directed to the similarities and differences in each of these groups. Second, the problems of racism and discrimination as they relate to immigrant populations and counselors are presented along with the adverse impact of these complex problems on immigrants. Third, challenges counselors face as well as practitioner intervention strategies when working with immigrant groups are presented. In addition, a new helping model that is specifically designed to promote the mental health and psychological well-being of immigrants is outlined.

Immigrant Characteristics, Employment Status, and Challenges in the United States

Approximately 75% of all immigrants have legal permanent status in the United States. Of the 25% who are undocumented, 40% have overstayed their temporary visas. Contrary to what many people might believe, less than 2% of the entire U.S. population is made up of undocumented immigrants (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, n.d.). From an employment perspective, immigrants constitute 22% of all low-wage workers and 40% of all low-skilled workers (Capps & Passel, 2004). Almost 50% of these workers have very limited English language proficiency (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002).

Undocumented Immigrants

Undocumented immigrants encounter unique challenges that differ from those of their legal counterparts. Besides having to pay hefty fees to be brought into the United States, undocumented immigrants experience a constant high risk of being caught and subjected to incarceration and inhumane treatment. The journey to the United States is often perilous and bounded by uncertainty, fear, injury, and even death. On the U.S.-Mexican border, there are also risks of encountering the growing U.S. citizen anti-immigrant patrols and vigilante groups, which have been noted to shoot at people whom they believe are "illegals" (Paget-Clarke, 1997). Such actions resulted in an average of more than 1 death per day in 2001, with a total of 491 undocumented immigrants dying while trying to cross the border that year (Abraido-Lanza, Armbrister, White, & Lanza, 2006). Once in the United States, undocumented immigrants live in continual fear of being discovered and subjected to legal proceedings that adversely affect their own and their families' lives (Perez, 2006).

Similar to all citizens, legal and undocumented immigrants pay federal, state, and local taxes for income, property, and goods, with expenditures projected between $90 billion to $140 billion a year, not including Social Security and Medicare taxes (Immigration Policy Center, 2007). It is estimated that immigrants' earn $240 billion a year while using only about $5 billion a year in public benefits (Immigration Policy Center, 2007). The approximately 7 million undocumented workers in the United States who are not entitled to benefits provided annual subsidies of $7 billion; generated $56 billion in earnings; and produced $6.4 billion in Social Security taxes, which will never be claimed in 2002 (Porter, 2005). Subsequently, the ratio between immigrant taxes and use of public benefits and the taxes paid results in huge financial gains for the U.S. economy.

Whether legal or illegal, the immigration process is characterized by a host of complex stressors that affect the mental health and quality of life of immigrant populations. Many immigrants encounter premigration trauma before arriving in the United States. For example, refugees may experience the loss and death of family members, be victims of torture and other forms of violence, and find themselves forced to live in crowded and unsanitary refugee camps before coming to the United States (Bemak & Chung, 2008a; Bemak, Chung, & Pedersen, 2003).

Language barriers impede many immigrants from securing gainful employment in a timely manner and contribute to high unemployment rates (Bemak & Chung, 2008a; Bemak et al., 2003). Many immigrants who were professionals in their home countries find that their educational qualifications are not transferable to the United States. This situation contributes to underemployment of immigrants. Compounding all of these challenges is the loss of cultural and community identity, social support networks, and one's ability to financially...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



More articles from Journal of Counseling and Development
Assessing multicultural competence: perceived versus demonstrated perf..., June 22, 2008
Multicultural and social justice training for counselor education prog..., June 22, 2008
Racial microaggressions against Black Americans: implications for coun..., June 22, 2008
Prejudice and racism, year 2008--still going strong: research on reduc..., June 22, 2008
Racial microaggressions against Black counseling and counseling psycho..., June 22, 2008

Looking for additional articles?
Search our database of over 3 million articles.

Looking for more in-depth information on this industry?
Search our complete database of Industry & Market reports by text, subject, publication name or publication date.

About Goliath
Whether you're looking for sales prospects, competitive information, company analysis or best practices in managing your organization, Goliath can help you meet your business needs.

Our extensive business information databases empower business professionals with both the breadth and depth of credible, authoritative information they need to support their business goals. Whether it be strategic planning, sales prospecting, company research or defining management best practices - Goliath is your leading source for accurate information.