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Article Excerpt
In a longitudinal study that followed children from fourth through sixth grades, we tested whether problems in children's peer relations preceded psychological maladjustment and whether adjustment difficulties paved the way for poor social relationships. Both close friendships and peer group acceptance were examined. Our findings indicated that less peer acceptance predicted more internalizing and externalizing symptoms and less global self-worth no years later but that psychological adjustment did not predict future peer acceptance. Conversely, the lack of a supportive close friendship did not predict worse psychological functioning; however, depressive symptoms and low self-worth did predict less close friend support two years later. These findings highlight the importance of distinguishing the different kinds of social bonds that children form with peers.
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It is no wonder that as children grow they spend more time with peers and place more importance on those relationships (Larson & Richards, 1991; Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Peers can provide companionship, support, nurturance, validation of self-worth, and a sense of belonging (Furman & Robbins, 1985; Zarbatany, Hartmann, & Rankin, 1990). In this way, a failure to form satisfying ties to peers may leave children more vulnerable to emotional and behavioral problems in childhood. The reverse causal ordering, suggesting that psychological problems increase the risk of developing difficulties with peers, has also been proposed (Brendgen, Vitaro, Turgeon, & Poulin, 2002; Hodges, Boivin, Vitaro, & Bukowski, 1999; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998; Ladd, 2006). The reasoning here is that characteristics of the maladjusted child can lead to social interactions that are uninviting and even aversive and can limit opportunities for the kinds of social experiences that foster social skills.
Whatever the direction of effects with psychological adjustment, it is important to consider distinctions between different types of peer relations. Friendships are characterized by mutual liking, affection, and intimacy even at young ages (Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996; Howes, 1996; Parker & Gottman, 1989); however, it is in late childhood and adolescence that intimacy and emotional support become key components in the connection between friends (Buhrmester & Prager, 1995). In addition to dyadic bonds, individuals have a relationship with their larger peer group. The group's perception of a given child is reflected in that child's level of social or peer acceptance. These two components of children's peer networks have been theorized to serve different functions. For instance, it has been proposed that friendships are a unique source of affection, intimacy, and nurturance, whereas the peer group provides a sense of inclusion and belonging (Furman & Robbins, 1985; Weiss, 1974). Given these distinct functions, it stands to reason that friendships and peer acceptance might be related to psychological adjustment in different ways (Bagwell, Newcomb, & Bukowski, 1998; Parker & Asher, 1993).
In order to make such comparisons, the longitudinal study described here assessed both aspects of children's social relationships. We tested whether less peer acceptance preceded poor adjustment as well as whether less psychological adjustment led to a lack of acceptance by peers. Similarly, we examined whether children's reports of less supportive close friendships predicted more emotional and behavioral problems and whether these problems predicted less support from close friends. Based on existing research, we expected to find evidence for both directional orderings linking poor social relationships to psychological maladjustment. (1)
"Psychological maladjustment" is a clinical term commonly used to denote two types of problems. (2) Externalizing symptoms are thought to be the result of insufficient self-control or self-regulation, whereas internalizing symptoms occur when children overcontrol their impulses (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, Murphy, Maszk, Holmgren, & Sub, 1996). Low self-esteem, or self-worth, is highly correlated with both types of problems and is generally regarded as a dominant characteristic of maladjustment in children (Mash & Barkley, 2003). The designations of "internalizing" and "externalizing" problems refer to symptom clusters of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that often co-occur. For instance, anxiety and depression, the hallmarks of internalizing problems, are manifested in symptoms such as sadness and fear, ruminations, perfectionism, somatic complaints (without an apparent medical cause), and social withdrawal. On the other hand, externalizing problems encompass features of delinquency, such as lying, setting fires, and lack of guilt, as well as aggressive behavior, such as screaming and fighting. (3) In the current study, all three indicators of psychological maladjustment--internalizing symptoms, externalizing symptoms, and low self-worth--were assessed at two time points.
A brief overview of the relevant research literature presented below focuses on findings based on longitudinal designs in which both peer relationships and psychological adjustment were examined at different time points. We begin with studies of peer acceptance and then discuss research on close friendship support. Where possible, we highlight research based on studies of participants who were close to the age range covered in this study (fourth through sixth grades).
Peer Acceptance and Psychological Adjustment
There is reliable evidence indicating that children who are not well accepted by their peer group are likely to later display more externalizing symptoms (Coie, Lochman, Terry, & Hyman, 1992; Deater-Deckhard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1998; Hymel, Rubin, Rowden, & LeMare, 1990; Kraatz-Keiley, Bates, Dodge, & Pettit, 2000; Kupersmidt & Patterson, 1991; Ladd, 2006; Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003; Laird, Jordan, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 2001; Morison & Masten, 1991). Longitudinal research on internalizing outcomes has not uncovered a comparably robust association. Positive associations have been reported between a lack of peer acceptance and parent and child descriptions of internalizing symptoms (Boivin, Hymel, & Bukowski, 1995; Coie et al., 1992; Kraatz-Keiley et al., 2000; Kupersmidt & Patterson, 1991; Morison & Masten, 1991; Panak & Garber, 1992). Furthermore, this association holds when composite scores based on combined parent, child, and teacher ratings of internalizing symptoms are used (Burks, Dodge, & Price, 1995; Deater-Deckhard et al., 1998; Laird et al., 2001; Nolan, Flynn, & Garber, 2003). However, as was the case in the present study, in three tests (Hymel et al., 1990; Kraatz-Keiley et al., 2000; Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003) internalizing difficulties were not predicted by a lack of peer acceptance when the outcome variable was measured solely by teacher reports, although in a recent investigation with teacher ratings, poor peer acceptance did forecast internalizing difficulties (Ladd, 2006). The nonsignificant association may be explained by the observation that teachers often underreport their students' internalizing symptoms (Hinshaw, Han, Erhardt, & Huber, 1992), thereby decreasing the likelihood of detecting an association with other variables. A couple of longitudinal studies have tested the association between lack of peer acceptance and subsequent declines in self-worth (Hymel et al., 1990; Morison & Masten, 1991). In both studies, problems with the peer group did not predict lower levels of self-worth at a subsequent time point.
We were also interested in the reverse temporal ordering, that is, whether problems in adjustment would predict less acceptance by the peer group. The premise that children with emotional and behavioral difficulties bring about problems with peers has recently been termed the "disorder-driven model" of social outcomes (Ladd, 2006). In a seven-year study (ages 5-12) with yearly assessments, Ladd (2006) tested this model as an alternative to the traditional approach (i.e., peer acceptance predicting adjustment) and found that neither internalizing nor externalizing problems contributed to changes in peer rejection. However, in other research studies, externalizing symptoms were associated with reduced acceptance by peers (Hymel et al., 1990; Laird et al., 2001). Interacting with children who are prone to be aggressive, disruptive, and hostile may lead to alienation, dislike, and eventually isolation from the larger peer group.
Depressed children, on the other hand, may initiate little prosocial contact, whine and complain, lack energy or motivation to engage in activities, and behave in an irritable manner with their peers (Caldwell, Rudolph, Troop-Gordon, & Kim, 2004; Peterson, Mullins, & Ridley-Johnson, 1985). Clearly, these behaviors have the potential to sour positive interactions and limit a child's opportunities to be included in the group. Whereas some longitudinal studies find that symptoms of depression in childhood predict less peer acceptance (Brendgen et al., 2002; Chen & Li, 2000; Vernberg, 1990), other studies do not find such an association (Little & Garber, 1995; Nolan et al., 2003). Note that these investigations concentrate on depression as a marker of internalizing difficulties. Although we were unable to identify any published longitudinal studies testing whether anxiety (another feature of internalizing problems) and self-worth predict future peer acceptance, these are also plausible hypotheses. Anxious children may withdraw or avoid social situations altogether (Rubin & Burgess, 2001; Vernberg, Abwender, Ewell, & Beery, 1992), and children with low self-esteem may lack the confidence needed for initiation of social interaction and group entry. (4)
Close Friend Support and Psychological Adjustment
Research on friendship support has developed in the context of two research traditions: the study of social support and the study of friendships. Whereas the former conceptualizes friendship support as a protective factor against the detrimental effects of stress, the latter views support as a quality of the relationship between two individuals. Regardless of their origins, research studies examining this construct have converged on a definition of friendship support that includes emotional support (e.g., caring, listening, understanding) as well as instrumental support (e.g., giving advice, helping with tasks).
Supportive friendships have been conceptualized as critical to children's psychological adjustment because they are inherently esteem-enhancing and provide positive experiences of companionship, nurturance, and affection (Furman & Robbins, 1985; Sullivan, 1953; Weiss, 1974). In addition, close friends are thought to help children better cope with stressors, thereby reducing emotional distress, by providing guidance and instrumental aid as well as a forum for discussion and self-disclosure. This line of reasoning suggests that support from friends should lead to better psychological outcomes. Studies indirectly testing this assertion (e.g., by assessing the presence of a friendship rather than the support it provides or by cross-sectional research measuring predictors and outcomes concurrently) have garnered support for the important role of friendships in children's adjustment (Parker & Asher, 1993; Hodges, Boivin, Vitaro, & Bukowski, 1999). However, longitudinal studies have not found similar evidence that support from a close friend forecasts less internalizing...
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