...proprietary the mind, but as genres go the novel has since its inception taken remarkable interest in mental states. Among other things, eighteenth-century fiction is so much writing about the mind: about how thoughts represent things, cause other thoughts to happen, or lead to actions. The same might be said for empiricism. Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophy paid unusual attention to the content of minds and the nature of ideas, to "human understanding" as Locke and Hume put it. While the connection between empiricism and the rise of the novel is a touchstone of literary studies, with a venerable tradition of scholarship dating back to the beginnings of the profession, only recently have critics drawn upon philosophy of mind and cognitive science to talk about the way in which thinking takes shape in particular works from the period. (1) This is of course not so much of a surprise, since criticism is as a rule skeptical of framing older texts with present-day models. The risk is one of anachronism or universalism, either shoehorning recalcitrant descriptions of the mind into our current language of cognition or locating both within a timeless and unchanging account of the psyche. Needless to say, my intention in this essay is to do neither; it is rather to consider what kind of insights can be gained by placing the description of thinking in the fiction and philosophy of the eighteenth century alongside certain tendencies within contemporary philosophy of mind and cognitive science--alongside, that is, the way in which we now talk about the mind. I'll begin with a comparison between empiricist and computational accounts of mental architecture and look at how each describes the shape and process of cognition. I'll then turn to "theory of mind," a line of work in cognitive science that has proven especially attractive to literary studies because it concerns the way in which thinking about the thoughts of other people can be modeled or provoked by works of fiction.

1. MENTAL ARCHITECTURE: FROM THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS TO THE LANGUAGE OF THOUGHT

Despite their many differences, there is an important sense in which empiricism is compatible with cognitive science. (2) Most but not all philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had some sort of representational theory of mind; most but not all cognitivists do too. (3) On this view, the mind works by forming representations of objects and events and then implementing them in various processes of thought. "Concerning the thoughts of man," Hobbes writes in the first sentence of Leviathan, "they are every one a Representation or Appearance, of some quality or accident of a body without us; which is commonly called an object." (4) Slide ahead a few hundred years and things are not so different. "Mental processes," writes Jerry Fodor, one of the more influential and controversial philosophers of mind and cognitive science today, "are computations, that is, they are defined on the syntax of mental representations." (5) For Hobbes as for Fodor, the work of the mind is to have thoughts about or of some distal entity or state of affairs and then to put thoughts together in such a way that leads to behavior. Thoughts are "intentional" in the sense coined by Franz Brentano: one has a belief about one thing or wants another, and unless those things are other minds, the object of belief or desire does not have intentionality itself. (6) Hobbes found this point to be worth some emphasis; "the thing we see is in one place; the appearance, in another" and between the two lies some sort of reference or allusion (14). When "at some certain distance, the reall and very object seem invested with the fancy it begets in us," we ought to remember that "the object is one thing, the image or fancy is another," and we ought to recognize that images and fancies are matters of thinking, while objects and events are matters at which thoughts are directed (14). What our minds dois create images out of perceptions and memories, and once that is done they piece images together in the "succession of one thought to another" we experience as mental life (20). Fodor's argument that the mind is like a computer is thus at least in a preliminary sense compatible with the view presented by Hobbes. Each makes a case for intentional realism and claims that mental states have semantic and causal properties distinct from other states of the world. (7) Mental states are typically about something and in their aboutness have a peculiar capacity for meaning and for agency.

As we shall see, the architecture of mental representations differs sharply between empiricism and its computational descendants. Before taking up these differences, however, I want to make two points in order to forestall potential worry. First, to say that a representational theory of mind distinguishes the mental from the nonmental is not to say that it holds a dualist or Cartesian view of the two. The distinction is one of function not one of substance. What the mind does is process information; what the mind is, ultimately, is an abstraction from matter. (8) Second, to speak of mental states in terms of intention and representation is not to say anything about what assumptions are attached to them by historical circumstance. Thus a representational theory of mind does hot itself entail any loose talk of subjectivity, privacy, interiority, selfhood, the individual, autonomy, the human, or even (save for Locke) consciousness. (9) Any one of these things may (or may hot) be joined with whatever account of thinking one prefers, but there is nothing in the logic of either empiricist or computational accounts of mind that requires a particular version of the entity in which thoughts are ostensibly occurring. And with these caveats, let us turn to the historical matter at hand.

One distinguishing feature of empiricism was that it attempted to cobble together an account of thinking with an account of epistemology. For Hobbes as for Hume, the architecture of mental representation was meant to satisfy a set of concerns about knowledge. When we think, our ideas tell us something about an external world. That world exists independently of our thoughts yet can only be understood through the images we have of it in the mind. (10) Consider Locke's famous description of the mind as a kind of camera obscura: "the Understanding is not much unlike a Closet wholly shut from light, with only some little openings left, to let in external visible Resemblances, or Ideas of things without; would the Pictures coming into such a dark Room but stay there, and lie so orderly as to be found upon occasion, it would very much resemble the Understanding of a Man." (11) On this description, the mind is a three-dimensional place littered with images, and thinking is a "repeating and joining together" of images into a sequence or association in which one idea leads to the next by means of some sort of inference (2.12.17). To have a mental state is to be in view of a representation, a picture of something one experiences or a series of pictures one puts together, and to be in view of a representation is to be in some relation of greater or lesser accuracy to a world that is being depicted. Locke's project, in this last respect, is not so much to understand what our beliefs are or how they are structured as it is to figure out whether we are justified in having the beliefs that we do.

In contrast to empiricism, the computational model tends to split apart such questions of epistemology from questions of psychology, to be less concerned with the accuracy of representations than with how they are put together and thus to consider ideas as something like units of a mental language. (12) Each has a theory of mental representation, but the nature of cognition differs between them. If the one associates over a parallel sequence of ideas, the other performs operations over a structured order of symbols. The mind is not so much a screening room for pictures, on the latter view, as it is an instrument for processing concepts. Consider the following thought: "Jonathan is writing an essay." To think that Jonathan is writing an essay, according to the computational logic, isn't to think Jonathan and then writing and then essay. It is to think about Jonathan that he is writing an essay. The predicate "is writing" holds the entities "Jonathan" and "essay" in such a way that some parts of the thought have priority over others in determining its overall meaning. For the thought to be a thought, on this view, it needs to be more than a series of pictures, or else we would never be able to think Jonathan "is writing" rather than the meaningless series "Jonathan/is/writing ..." or the meaningless lumps "Jonathan is," "writing an," and so on. (13) Like a computer, the mind is sensitive to the syntactical arrangement of ifs concepts. Unlike a computer, however, the mind is hot sensitive only to syntax. For the semantics of a thought to arise from its configuration, each of its lexical units must also have an independent meaning. On the computational model, therefore, thinking tends to have what linguists call a compositional form, according to which the meaning of any one thought is determined by the structure of its syntax and the meaning of its constituents. (14)

The point of the comparison is not so much to scold empiricism as an inadequate philosophy of mind as it is to indicate what is important in its cognitive architecture by means of its difference from current models of mental representation. I will argue later in this essay that what is allegedly wrong about empiricism turns out to be "right" for the novel, although not perhaps in the way that we have traditionally imagined. To get us there, let us observe the way in which Fodor describes the difference: "mental representations are sentence-like rather than picturelike.... In sentences, there's a distinction between mere parts and constituents, of which the latter are the semantically interpretable parts. By contrast, every part of a picture has an interpretation: it shows part of what the picture shows." (15) Fodor's point is that empiricism's commitment to the image entails that it can only consider thinking as one idea after another and not, as he would prefer, a computation over the whole. "Associations are operations on parts of mental representations," while "computations are operations defined on their constituent structures." (16) The distinction has an important corollary for the way in which we consider the mind. An association can never get beyond the image because it ties semantics in an epistemic relation to objects. In contrast, computations discover the semantics of mental representations in the way in which their lexical units are organized.

Across the long divide between empiricist and computational theories of the mind, therefore, several important distinctions come to the fore. The computational model agrees with the empiricist model that ideas exist...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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