...for constructing racial identity attitudes of Native Americans.

Individuals identify themselves by various distinguishable racial, ethnic, and cultural group characteristics (Locke, 1998). According to Arroyo (1995), the awareness of clearly distinguished boundaries between members of differing groups defines group identification. Distinguishable racial, ethnic, and cultural group boundaries are skin color, country of origin, language, and religion (Canabal, 1995). The formation of these boundaries is important to the psychological adjustment and development of individuals (Alvarez, 1996).

A newly articulated identity is now being sought that further defines these boundaries and helps to refine one's place in this increasingly complex society. This new identity is being articulated in the conceptualization of racial identity development. Racial identity involves the realization that one shares a collective racial culture with a particular racial group (Helms, 1995a). Racial identity development focuses on the process that racially or culturally diverse groups of people go through in developing a healthy, well-adjusted racial or cultural identity (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1998; Cross, 1995; Helms, 1994).

According to Cross, Parham, and Helms (1991), the more efficiently individuals are able to resolve conflicts between the old and new worldview, the higher they are able to progress within racial identity models. Thus, individuals who are never able to find resolution regarding these matters tend to remain at lower stages of racial identity development. On the other hand, individuals who embrace their differences and work to expand their own self-awareness and acceptance of others are more able to move freely to higher stages of racial identity development.

Racial identity development theory is condensed into models that map out the process of racial identity development. The models contain stages that represent an individual's psychological progress from lower to higher stages of development. Typically, lower stages represent less-defined, underdeveloped psychological mentalities (Helms, 1995a).

Helms suggests using the People of Color Racial Identity Scale (PRIAS; Helms, 1995b) as a method of constructing profiles for individuals, but she does not use it to classify people according to distinct categories. To this end, Helms discontinued the concept of stage and now uses the word status to conceptualize identity (Helms & Cook, 1999). She approaches racial identity from an expanded cognitive perspective and suggests that each status profile be seen as a distinctive worldview. Worldview can influence one's patterns of thought, behavior, decision making, as well as how one defines particular events in one's life (Cross et al., 1991).

Stage models began to appear in the late 1960s apparently as a result of civil rights activities (Cross & Vandiver, 2001). Cross's (1995) Black Racial Identity Development Theory ,is based on the Black experience with oppression encountered during this time period. This theory presents the racial identity transition of African Americans from a pro-White and anti-Black attitude to a pro-Black orientation. The Atkinson and colleagues (1998) Minority Identity Development Theory (which is based on Cross's work) was created in response to the experiences African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and other ethnic groups have had with historical oppression by White Americans. The effects of this past oppression and present attitudes of racism exhibited by many White Americans have influenced the development of these theories.

According...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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