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Article Excerpt
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Leadership development remains a popular topic in research and practice. Of the estimated $51 billion spent on training annually, more than $14 billion was for leadership development (Dolezalek, 2005). However, guidance on the development of leaders tends either to be purely conceptual or purely applied. Little academic work connects the theory of leadership development to the interventions used in leadership development programs and initiatives. As a result, this paper categorizes a comprehensive list of more than 25 sources of learning within the framework of Conger's (1992) four approaches to leadership development programming. Conger's work was groundbreaking because few scholars had attempted to categorize the different approaches to leadership development (Hunt, 1992; Yukl, 2002). Although many scholars have categorized five or 10 sources of learning (Avolio, 1999; Day, 2001; London, 2002; Yukl, 2002), we provide one of the first comprehensive lists. Sources of learning are the primary vehicles for delivering leadership development learning activities before, during, and after the leadership development intervention (e.g., action learning, job rotation, assessment centers). Linking all sources of learning with Conger's (1992) four approaches provides a starting point for future work on how best to deliver leadership development.
Leadership and Leadership Development is Contextual
Leadership is a relationship between leaders, followers, and the context. Likewise, leadership development is contextual and the approaches and sources of learning used for leadership development provide a learning opportunity unique to that specific program. The intention is that participants will draw knowledge from the source of learning and improve their ability to lead teams, organizations, and change effectively. As a result, the success or failure of leadership development initiatives hinges on the overall approach (objectives), the sources of learning the initiatives provide, and their affect on the individual.
In addition, individual-level variables like age, learning style, organizational role, development level, motivation, and self-efficacy have also affect results of leadership development programs (Conger, 2004). As a result, the predominant historical system where organizations depend on only one source of learning simply cannot meet the needs of all. For these reasons we suggest that it is in the best interest of architects of leadership development initiatives to offer a variety of interventions that align with various styles of learning, content coverage, and time spans. Thus, each participant can choose how he or she will develop. Some organizations may think they lack the funding to create multiple sources of learning, but there is evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of job rotation, job enrichment, job enlargement, developmental relationships, instruments, service learning, personal development plans, and action learning as inexpensive ways to develop individuals.
Four Themes in Leadership Development Programming
In his book Learning to Lead, Jay Conger (1992) suggests four primary approaches to leadership development: (1) personal growth, (2) conceptual understanding, (3) feedback, and (4) skill building (Figure 1).
Naturally, there is an inherent benefit in matching Conger's (1992) four approaches to leadership development with the various sources of learning used in leadership development initiatives. Each source of learning has a number of characteristics, and some would argue each could be placed in multiple approaches, but we placed each in what we feel is its primary learning objective (Figure 2). Each leadership development program varies by the sources of learning offered to participants. For example, a feedback approach to leadership development may include a 360-degree evaluation that gives the participant opinions on their performance from everyone with whom the individual comes in contact (supervisors, coworkers, partners, subordinates, and the general public). Since the primary source of learning is derived from the feedback, we paired it with Conger's feedback approach to leadership development.
Leadership Development Through Personal Growth
Personal growth experiences induce reflection on behaviors, personal values, and desires (Conger, 1992). Discussion about the connection between leadership development and personal growth permeates the literature (e.g., Avolio 2005; Cacioppe, 1998; Popper and Lipshitz, 1993). Personal growth programs are "based, generally, on the assumption that leaders are individuals who are deeply in touch with their personal dreams and talents and who will act to fulfill them" (Conger, 1992). Essentially, the purpose of these programs is to increase self-awareness and emphasize self-exploration. Avolio and Gibbons (1989) assert that, "After getting their own personal shops in order, charismatic/transformational leaders are free to look outward and beyond the time period in which they operate to solve significant problems." The relationship with leader development is that the more self-aware leader will be better prepared to lead others. Sources of learning that align with the personal growth approach to leadership development include:
* Group reflection--This source of learning often occurs after an activity or event within the context of a learning activity. One form of group reflection is the military's use of an After Action Review. According to Bruce Avolio (2005), the process has several phases and begins with a discussion of the event so that a shared meaning of what happened can be developed. After this step, participants engage in a discussion of why events unfolded as they were followed by the development of alternative courses of action. Group reflection is a popular source of learning in leadership development programs. Often conducted after a teambuilding or action learning activity, the purpose is to help participants make connections and capture learning. This approach is easy to implement and cost effective, but, little in the management or leadership literature supports its use.
* Individual reflection--Individual reflection occurs through activities such as journaling and challenges participants to focus on topics such as goals, personal mission, and experiences. Individual reflection may focus on past experience or future aspirations. Similar to group reflection, individual reflection is often combined with other activities in the context of a leadership development program. Although widely used in practice, little has been written on the topic in the management and leadership development literature.
* Service learning--According to Jacoby (1996), service learning is "a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address...
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