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Article Excerpt
Introduction
"I should say we'd reach England by Tuesday or thereabouts, with a decent wind behind us. It would be a lot quicker than that if we could just sail straight there, but I was looking at the nautical charts, and it's a good job I did, because it turns out there's a dirty great sea-serpent right in the middle of the ocean! It has a horrible gaping maw and one of those scaly tails that looks like it could snap a boat clean in two. So I thought it best to sail around that.' FritzRoy frowned. 'I think they just draw those on maps to add a bit of decoration. It doesn't actually mean there's a sea-serpent there.' The galley went rather quiet. A few of the pirate crew stared intently out of the portholes, embarrassed at their Captain's mistake. But to everyone's relief, instead of running somebody through, the Pirate Captain just narrowed his eyes thoughtfully. 'That explains a lot,' he said. 'I suppose it's also why we've never glimpsed that giant compass in the corner of the Atlantic. I have to say, I'm a little disappointed." (Defoe 2004, p. 44-45).
Cartography is rarely associated with humor. Why should it be? Maps are primarily meant to be factual, accurate, and informative. They are supposed to help us find our way, understand our environment, and inform our decisions. They have been designed and used for centuries for highly strategic purposes such as planning and executing war, locating valuable resources, collecting taxes, claiming territories, and participating in the creation and recognition of nation-states. These strategic domains have required accurate maps, designed through objective, scientific processes using more and more precise and relevant data measurements, techniques, and procedures. So why should cartographers care about humor? Why would humor, which can be irreverent, subversive, and impertinent, but certainly not scientific, be of any interest to the cartographic discipline?
To address these questions, this paper engages directly with contemporary, broad intellectual, social, and cultural currents in critical cartography. These currents emphasize the importance of the development of new cartographic practices, including the opening of cartography to alternative projects and the development of multiple identity cartographies as suggested by John Pickles (2004). The emergence of art maps (Wood and Krygier 2006; Abrams and Hall 2006), bio mapping (Nold 2004), geospatial storytelling (Dodge and Kitchin 2000; Greenspan et al. 2006), and multi-sensory cyber-cartography (Taylor and Caquard 2006; Brauen 2006; Lauriault and Lindgaard 2006) illustrate the development of diverse cartographic identities alongside the integration of multiple disciplinary fields. Humor, which has been combined with maps in many different ways outside the discipline of cartography, can contribute to the re-composition of the field of cartography. We propose to stimulate a reflection on the potential humor holds in cartography by exploring how the irreverent, subversive, impertinent, and funny dimensions of humor could contribute to the evolution of the cartographic discipline.
The first section of the paper proposes to address the following question: Why should cartographers care about humor? Addressing this question involves introducing the multiple functions of humor and discussing the reasons for the lack of humor in contemporary cartography. The second section explores the place of humor in alternative cartography and its relation to scientific cartography. This section is illustrated by several examples of humorous maps designed by caricaturists and cartoonists since the 19th century. Finally, the last section discusses new forms and functions of humorous maps in the context of the development of hybrid cartographies in the digital era.
Why Should Cartographers Care about Humor?
The Functions of Humor
There is no aspect of our lives that is not open to humor. Humor has no boundaries; it permeates every social context. Undoubtedly, humor and laughing are essential parts of what it is to be human, and we all easily detect the behavior or feeling it provokes. Humor takes on a range of forms, including parody, satire, pun, ridicule, slapstick, comedy, joke, and wit. In this first section, we propose an overall review of the major functions of humor to understand better the potential it holds for cartography, and the reasons of the lack of humor in the discipline.
Since the time of Aristotle, philosophers and other scholars have tried to understand the origin, function, and importance of humor. Kant, Bergson, and Freud all addressed humor by trying to explain and define it (Montreall 1987). Notwithstanding, it remains difficult to find an all encompassing definition of humor. Gruner (1976) provides one definition by describing humor as a process initiated by a stimulus, such as a joke or a cartoon, which results in a response indicative of experiencing pleasure and joy such as laughter. However, humor is much more than a response to a stimulus. According to Martin (2000), humor has cognitive (i.e., mental processes involved in the appreciation of humor), emotional (i.e., pleasurable feelings), behavioral (e.g., laughter), social (e.g., interpersonal), and psycho-physiological (i.e., involving autonomic nervous system changes) components.
Recently, different theories have been developed to address the complexity of humor. The three main theories of humor include relief theory, superiority theory, and incongruity theory (Morreall 1983; Berger 1993; De Koning and Weiss 2002). According to relief theory, humor results from the release of nervous energy. People experience humor and laugh because a sense of stress has been reduced. In this view, humor can reveal suppressed desires and socio-cultural inhibitions. By contrast, superiority theory asserts that people laugh because they feel some kind of triumph over others or feel superior to them. Making fun of those who are less fortunate or who deviate from a particular set of norms are typical kinds of humor addressed by superiority theory. Finally, incongruity theory argues that people laugh at things that are unexpected or surprising (Berger 1993). According to this theory, the violation of an expected pattern provokes humor in the mind of the receiver. While existing theories of humor appear partial, they remain invaluable for framing our understanding of the use, function, and effect of humor. As Meyer (2000, p. 316) argues, "relief humor can be used for relaxing tension during communication in disconcerting situations, incongruity humor for presenting new perspectives and viewpoints, and superiority humor for criticizing opposition or unifying a group." Following Meyer, this paper engages with these three theories of humor.
As the range of humor theories indicates, humor has different functions. It is one of the most important forms of creative human communication, and the use of humor and wit is intimately related to human nature (Lynch 2002). Humor augments fun, provokes mirth, and offers a highly pleasurable experience. Sharing humor and laughter can be an indicator of togetherness, enhancing feelings and creating a positive emotional atmosphere. To joke with others is to share the enjoyment that it involves; it is a friendly, social gesture that can be an indication of empathy, sympathy, or intimacy (Boyd 2004). By supporting these feelings, humor can enhance the sense of being present in a mediated environment.
Humor is part of virtually all social encounters and therefore holds an important social function. Humor can support collectivity by reducing interpersonal tension between group members; it is an important factor in indicating social unity and solidarity. Moreover, the symbolic use of humor sustains group identity (Fine 1976). Each community of practice has its own form of humor using specific knowledge, cultural references, and practices which are not necessarily shared by other groups. Laughter implies understanding these references. Thus, humor can demarcate the lines between inclusion and exclusion, while also providing a means of enculturation.
Current practices and research indicate strong support for the use of humor as an educational tool (Conkell et al. 1999). Many educators believe that humor improves the school atmosphere by creating a cheerful learning climate, promoting interaction, and decreasing stress. Moreover, humor helps to manage learners' wellbeing, emotions, and moods, thereby preventing frustration and reducing anxiety while fulfilling difficult tasks or subjects (Roeckelein 2004). Humor enhances engagement, as it stimulates reactions of surprise,...
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