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Article Excerpt
A historical period in a particular geographic location often brings forth a unique zeitgeist--a prevalent spirit of thought and action for the citizenry of that nation or region (Shlain, 1999; Simonton, 1984). The zeitgeist can exert a strong influence on the development of creative intelligence (Ambrose, 2003). For example, a gifted child of citizens in ancient Athens likely would have been pressured to pursue excellence in philosophy, literature, science, or the arts as worthy ends in themselves because perfection of the mind and body was the ideal. In contrast, a child of ancient Rome likely would have been pressured to be less idealistic and more pragmatic. In keeping with the values of aggressive mastery, control, and order in events (Tarnas, 1991), Roman children would have been encouraged to develop skills conducive to adult success in law, political administration, or military strategy. When these idea frameworks become reified and portray a perfect end point for a society, they become utopian visions. Utopian thought frameworks can provide idealistic beacons for the positive development of a society but they often lead to overpursuit of some ideals and serious neglect of others, or even serious erosion of justice (Kumar, 1987).
Some gifted youth and adults tend to become highly sensitive to complex, pressing moral issues (Chauvin, 2000; Dabrowski & Piechowski, 1977; Piechowski, 2003; Silverman, 1993). Consequently, they are likely to be more attentive to utopian thought than are peers of less expansive intellect. Gifted people with powerful imaginations may be more capable of creating utopian frameworks for others to follow. Those with exceptional leadership capacities may be more capable of leading large numbers of people toward, or away from, a particular utopian vision. Those with outstanding critical-thinking capacities may be better able to see flaws in a utopian framework that others accept as faultless and majestic. In view of these possibilities, it is wise to consider utopian notions as global issues that can influence the gifted.
Today's globalized world is evolving rapidly and is fraught with large-scale, multidimensional problems such as environmental degradation and global warming (Firor & Jacobsen, 2002; Flannery, 2006; Speth, 2004), desperate poverty (Bowles, Durlauf, & Hoff, 2006), and looming shortages of crucial resources (Homer-Dixon, 2001), to name just a few issues. Consequently, thinking in highly imaginative ways to create idealistic pictures of the best possible society is valuable. We should encourage the gifted to develop this ability; but we should ensure that such thinking does not spin out of control. It should be mitigated by some equally impressive critical-thinking capacities that can cut through the apparent faultlessness of a utopian ideal to reveal its flaws.
This analysis employs an interdisciplinary search for insights that can reveal some benefits and dangers of utopian thought in the development of global awareness in the gifted. Constructs from philosophy, economics, political theory, history, anthropology, and theology are imported to augment current thinking about global issues and high ability. First, I illustrate some utopian thought frameworks. Second, I articulate some dangers of utopianism. Finally, I explore some implications for the education and development of gifted individuals.
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF UTOPIAN THOUGHT
Utopian visions portray the general characteristics of an ideal society, and often emerge from distaste for the status quo. Many leading minds throughout the history of human thought have touched on the ideal state of society. Philosophers, theologians, and historians frequently have weighed in on utopian or near-utopian ideals, and a few social scientists have contributed to the discussion. Some of these are outlined here. Due to the depth and breadth of utopian thinking, only a few representative examples are included here to provide some frameworks for considering the effects of utopian thought on manifestations of giftedness in global contexts.
Prominent philosophers frequently generate utopian visions that can capture the imaginations of many. For example, Plato's ideal republic, should it have become manifest, would have arisen from the differentiation of three groups in a stratified society (see Santas, 2006). Each group would be created through careful breeding, selection, and education. The most gifted intellectuals would comprise the ruling elite, which would be trained rigorously in the methods of critical reasoning. Importantly, they would seek the benefit of the group instead of their own self-interest. For example, members of the elite would not own private property. A class of soldiers would form an auxiliary below the elite to enforce laws and provide stability. The masses, driven by their appetites and incapable of sophisticated reason, would reside at the bottom in a large worker class. Plato's republic would rely heavily on the deep wisdom of the elite's gifted, rational, and philosophically attuned minds, which would override the false moral notions of the passionate arts, such as poetry. Ideally, the reasoning of the philosophical elite would harmonize with the spirited nature of the auxiliaries and the appetitive nature of the workers to create a well-functioning society in which the talents of all would find a place.
The 16th-century philosopher-theologian, Thomas More (1516/1997) also developed a prominent utopian perspective based on an imaginary island nation in the new world. According to More, the ideal society would be a centralized welfare state based on representative democracy, freedom of religion, and equality of the sexes. More's utopians also would not allow much in the way of private property.
Rousseau (1755/1984), an 18th-century Romantic philosopher, envisioned a much different society based on a near idyllic notion of humanity. According to his view, in a state of nature we are similar to animals and enjoy a form of innocent harmony. The development of language and reason in human culture brings about some self-understanding and distancing from nature while retaining the harmony. This establishes a natural community, which is humanity's near-perfect moment. As we continue to develop, we establish systems of private property and a specialized division of labor, both of which lead to class divisions that make us more aggressive and exploitative while alienating us from one another. Thus, we begin in freedom and end in chains. The ideal society would eschew private property and the division of labor to achieve the state of natural community once again.
Karl Marx, the primary icon of communism, viewed society as evolving toward an ideal, from primitive self-awareness through self-alienation to the optimal levels of self-realization (Marx & Engels, 1848/1998). This evolution proceeds through discernible stages of economic production. From a primitive, communal first stage, humanity moves into three exploitative stages in which alienation prevails--slavery, then feudalism, then capitalism. The final, inevitable apex of societal development is communism in which private property and exploitation are replaced by collective efforts for the good of all. Various Marxist-inspired scholars such as Gramsci (see Mouffe, 1979) and Althusser (see S. B. Smith, 1984) have elaborated on the ways in which exploitation...
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