...assigned meaning. Culture is also felt to affect the manner in which an individual and their family accepts, reacts to, and adapts to a disability (Smart & Smart, 1991). Comprehensive treatment must therefore take culture into consideration including the religious and spiritual beliefs related to disability as well as folk beliefs about the causes and treatment of disability (Salas-Provance, Erickson, Reed, 2002).

Literature related to Mexican Attitudes

The term Hispanic literally means 'from Spain' and is a term that refers to persons who have cultural and heritage ties to Spain, whereas Latino refers more specifically to persons from Latin America, including non-Spanish speaking countries. Chicano is a term which is specific to persons of Mexican descent. While preferences for the use of these terms vary by populations over time, the U.S. government uses Hispanic to identify persons from over 20 countries who trace their heritage to Spanish speaking countries (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007). While studies have been conducted to examine the influence of Hispanic culture and disability, they frequently fail to specify the nationality of the group being defined (Salas-Provance, Erickson, Reed, 2002). Literature regarding Mexican and Mexican American attitudes toward disability is also limited in that studies fail to make distinctions specific to geographic location and frequently makes inappropriate groupings of Hispanic persons from distinctly different cultures and levels of acculturation (Graf, Blankenship, Carlson, & Sanchez, 2007). In addition, much of the research regarding Mexican and Mexican American attitudes toward disability and health beliefs was conducted in the late 1970's, 1980's and early 1990's (Arnold, 1983; Baer & Bustillo, 1993; Castro, Furth, & Karlow, 1984; Cruz, 1979; Groce & Zola, 1993; Guerra, 1973; Mardiros, 1989; Rivera; 1983; Rivera & Cespedes, 1982; Schreiber & Homiak, 1981; Smart & Smart, 1991; Trotter, 1982; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1987; Zayas, 1981) and continues to serve as representative of values and beliefs among Hispanic cultures. Current articles that reflect cultural beliefs of Hispanics frequently cite literature that relies upon these earlier studies. A 1998 article (Harris) intended to explain the use of Curanderism (Mexican folk healing) and its relation to mental illness deferred to Torrey (1972) to describe three origins for psychopathologies in the Mexican culture which included natural causes, emotional causes, and supernatural causes. This article included 29 citations, 25 of which were from the 1970s and 1980s, and four which were prior to the 70s. Only one citation from the 1990s appeared.

Literature has long argued that early the earlier reporting of fatalistic views among Mexicans may have been flawed due to the Anglo interpretations of Mexican beliefs (Garza & Ames, 1976; Ruiz & Padilla, 1977). However, fatalistic attitudes and beliefs in disability as a punishment from God continue to be reported in the literature that informs students today (Lujan & Campbell, 2006; Lynch & Hanson, 1998; Santana & Santana, 2001; Zuniga, 1992).

Demographics. According to the 2005 American Community Survey, there are approximately 41.9 million persons in the U.S. who identify themselves as Hispanic. Sixty-four percent (26.8 million) of Hispanics are of Mexican descent making up 9.3% of the total U.S population. Approximately 60% of Mexicans in the U.S are native born citizens, 9% are foreign born and became citizens. However, English is spoken at home in only 21% of Mexican households. The median income of Mexican households is $35,400 which compares to a median income of 46.2 thousand of the general population; about 24% of Mexican Americans live below the poverty level (family of 3 with one child $16,227) as compared to 13.3% of the general population. Approximately 9.7% of Mexican persons who are non-institutionalized and over age 5 have disabilities. Among the working age population about 8.9% have disabilities (US Census Bureau, 2007). Due to the rapid rise in the Hispanic population, it is projected that Hispanics will become the dominant minority group in the U.S. and by 2050, it is estimated that a quarter of the population will be comprised of Hispanics (CDC, 2004). Based upon demographic projections, the number of Hispanics in U.S. schools will double between 2000 and 2020, and the number of Hispanics in the labor market will triple (Suro & Passel, 2003).

Acculturation. Acculturation involves changes to a person's beliefs, language, customs, values, and attitudes through the process of continued exposure to a secondary culture. It is therefore, reasonable to assume that, by definition, changes in beliefs may occur over time. Among the Mexican American population, this process can occur gradually or rapidly depending upon several factors including the proportion of Mexican Americans to Anglo Americans, which is largely dependent upon geographic location. In areas with large Mexican American populations, acculturation may take place at a slower pace, with greater retention of traditional beliefs and practices. Approximately two-thirds of Hispanics reside in California, Texas, Florida, and New York. States bordering on Mexico have the largest percent of Hispanics in their populations ranging from 43% Hispanics in New Mexico to 28% in Arizona. Texas and California have approximately 35% Hispanic populations. (2004 American Community Survey, U.S. Census Bureau, 2007) Acculturation does not assume that previously held beliefs will be given up because, unless new beliefs are incompatible with old beliefs, they can co-exist. Thus, numerous variations of integrated beliefs are possible (Cuellar & Arnold, 1988). Mendoza and Martinez (1981) noted that adaptations may mutually coexist with existing beliefs (mutually inclusive) or may require the exclusion of existing beliefs (mutually exclusive). One example of integration of culture rather than culture replacement is evident in the religious beliefs of Mexicans and Mexican Americans.

Folk Beliefs: Causes and Cures

In addition to genetic problems and post-birth accidents, the literature reports that many disabilities are viewed by Hispanics as having a supernatural etiology. Dreams during pregnancy may be seen as premonitions of childhood disability (Salas-Provance, Erickson, Reed, 2002). Supernatural beliefs related to disability or disease include "mal de ojo" (evil eye), "real puesto" (hex), "embrujeria" (witchcraft) and "susto" (magical fright). Thought disorders, hallucinations, delusions, and other psychiatric symptoms may be viewed as due to witchcraft, evil spirits, and ritualistic materials or practices (Cuellar & Arnold, 1988).). Other causes of illness have been noted as natural causes including air pollutants, spoiled food, and excesses of temperatures; psychological states including embarrassment, worry, jealousy, fear, family turmoil, anger, and immoral behaviors; and supernatural causes such as evil spirits, bad luck, and witchcraft practiced by living enemies (Molina, Zambrana, & Aguirre-Molina, 1994).

In terms of cures, folk beliefs of Mexicans originated from the ancient Aztec and pre-Columbian civilizations and include folk healing practices known as "curanderismo" which is used to treat physical, psychological, emotional, and spiritual problems. Curanderas(os) are considered divinely gifted healers who intervene by the use of natural and supernatural practices. However, herbal remedies and ritualistic practices may be used by Mexicans with or without the aid of a healer. In addition to the curanderas, curative and medical practitioners include herbalists (yerberso), massage therapists (sobadores) and women who serve as midwives (parteras). Traditional practices also include spiritualism associated with spirit world contact (Spires-Robin & McGarrahan, 1995) and witchcraft which is associated with more malevolent practices (Applewhite, 1995). Home remedies (remedies caseros) are also popular and include teas, holy water, eggs, voltive candles, and rice water (Salas-Provance, Erickson, & Reed, 2002).

Some recent attempts have been made to clarify the use of...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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