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Article Excerpt
Abstract. Research evidence indicates that integration of letter sounds with phonological blending and segmenting is critical for acquisition of beginning word reading skills. Yet, a review of kindergarten intervention studies revealed that the optimal sequence for integrating these two component skills has not been investigated empirically. In this pilot study, two sequences for integrating and teaching letter-sound correspondences and phonological blending and segmenting were compared to determine which sequence resulted in higher word reading and phonological awareness performance and higher rates of growth for kindergarten children with low phonemic segmentation skills. Fifty-five children, 36 with phonemic segmentation deficits, were randomly assigned to two instructional conditions: (a) parallel, integrated (PI), or (b) parallel, non-integrated (PN-I) sequence. At posttest, initial segmentation skills explained only 7% of the variance for the PI group and 36% of the variance for the PN-I group on segmentation fluency measures. The PI sequence "closed the gap" in phonemic segmentation between children with low segmentation skills and children with adequate skills by posttest. Children in the PI sequence also performed reliably higher on word reading generalization at posttest and maintenance, and the rate of change in the growth trajectory for letter-sound fluency was greater for the PI sequence.
Recent promulgation and implementation of the "Early Reading First" and the "Reading First" initiatives as part of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 represents a nationwide effort to help all students become readers by grade three (No Child Left Behind Act, 2001). These initiatives focus on early identification, intervention and prevention of reading failure for all children, but especially young children at risk of future reading disabilities.
Prior to these initiatives, more than two decades of research have investigated questions related to phonological and alphabetic awareness and successful acquisition of beginning reading skills (e.g., Adams, 1990; Ball & Blachman, 1988, 1991; Lewkowicz, 1980; Liberman & Shankweiler, 1985; National Reading Panel, 2000; Stanovich, 1986; Torgesen & Davis, 1996; Wagner, 1988; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987). Several "big ideas" (Kameenui & Carnine, 1998) have emerged from this research base.
First, in beginning reading, phonological awareness is critical, especially in kindergarten, because it forms the foundation for developing alphabetic understanding, a skill that requires children to map the individual sounds in words onto the letters of the alphabet in order to be able to read words (e.g., Adams, 1990; Ball & Blachman, 1991; Footman, Francis, Beeler, Winikates, & Fletcher, 1997; National Reading Panel, 2000; Smith, Simmons, & Kameenui, 1998).
Second, converging evidence suggests that specific phonological tasks, especially phonemic segmentation, are strong predictors of beginning reading ability (Muter, Hulme, Snowling, & Taylor, 1997; Kaminski & Good, 1996; O'Connor & Jenkins, 1999; Snider, 1997; Spector, 1992; Wagner, Torgesen, Rashotte, Hecht, Barker, et al., 1997; Yopp, 1988), and that the phonological awareness skills of phonemic segmentation and phonemic blending are necessary prerequisites for success in learning to read (Ball & Blachman, 1988, 1991; Davidson & Jenkins, 1994; Fox & Routh, 1984; O'Connor, Jenkins, & Slocum, 1995; Torgesen, Morgan, & Davis, 1992).
Third, phonological awareness skills are teachable (e.g., Adams, 1990; Ball & Blachman, 1988, 1991; Brady, Fowler, Stone, & Winbury, 1994; Cunningham, 1990; O'Connor et al., 1995; National Reading Panel, 2000; Smith et al., 1998). Thus, instruction often results in significant gains in phonological awareness skills for most children. Those who received phonological awareness instruction and subsequently demonstrated increases in these skills had higher scores on measures of reading achievement than children who did not receive phonological awareness instruction (Ball & Blachman, 1991; Cunningham, 1990; Fox & Routh, 1984; Davidson & Jenkins, 1994; O'Connor et al., 1995; O'Connor, Notari-Syverson, & Vadasy, 1996; Torgesen et al., 1992).
Finally, although phonological awareness is necessary, it is not sufficient for beginning reading acquisition. Phonological awareness instruction is most advantageous for learning to read words when combined with alphabetic skills, specifically letter-sound correspondences, to establish explicit links between letters and sounds in spoken words (e.g., Ball & Blachman, 1991; Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1989, 1991; Ehri & McCormick, 1998; Foorman et al., 1997; National Reading Panel, 2000; Simmons & Kameenui, 1998; Vandervelden & Siegel, 1997).
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This pilot study examined the sequence of integrating alphabetic and phonological awareness skills that best facilitated word reading performance for children in kindergarten with limited phonological awareness. A multistep process was used as outlined below.
First, kindergarten studies were identified that involved children with low phonological awareness skills and had investigated the integration of letter-sound correspondences and the phonological awareness skills of blending and segmenting to facilitate word reading. Second, a conceptual framework was developed to provide (a) a structure for organizing, describing, and codifying the relationship between two component skills--the integration of letter-sound correspondences and phonological blending and segmenting; and (b) a vehicle for analyzing and reporting how these component skills were integrated to attain specific instructional outcomes (i.e., word reading) in the kindergarten studies. These preliminary steps to achieve the purpose of the study are detailed in the subsequent sections.
Selection Criteria for Kindergarten Studies
Studies were selected for analysis if they met all of the following criteria. First, the study included kindergarten children with low phonological awareness skills. Second, the independent variable included only the phonological awareness skills of blending and segmenting or a combination of the two skills. This criterion was selected because converging evidence indicates that phonemic blending and segmenting are highly correlated with beginning reading acquisition. Third, letter-sound correspondences were included as part of the intervention. Fourth, a minimum of one word-reading measure was used as one of the dependent variables. Fifth, children were randomly assigned to treatment conditions Results of the Kindergarten Literature Search
The literature search identified 22 studies conducted with kindergarten children. A review of these studies revealed the following pattern. Five studies (Christensen, 1997; McClure, Ferreira, & Bisanz, 1996; Muter et al. 1997; Snider, 1997; Yopp, 1988) were correlation studies. Three studies were longitudinal studies that were initiated with a kindergarten cohort (Fielding-Barnsley, 1997; Foorman et al., 1997; Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 1997) and continued over several years.
Eight studies were implemented with intact classrooms of children and taught by kindergarten teachers (Blachman, Ball, Black, & Tangel, 1994; Brady et al., 1994; Brennan & Ireson, 1997; Kersholt, Van Bon, & Schreuder, 1997; Kozminsky & Kozminsky, 1995; Kuby & Aldridge, 1997; Lundberg, Frost, & Peterson, 1988; O'Connor et al., 1996). In these eight classroom studies a variety of phonological awareness skills were taught during the intervention. Some studies included alphabetic skills (i.e., letters) (e.g., Blachman et al., 1994); others did not (e.g., Lundberg et al., 1988; Kozminsky & Kozminsky, 1995). Two studies included only typically achieving kindergarten children (Ball & Blachman, 1991; Cunningham, 1990). One study (Vandervelden & Siegel, 1997) included children with low phonological awareness. Instruction included a variety of phonological and print activities to help kindergarten children recognize printed matches of spoken words or syllables and to spell words.
Four studies involving children with low phonological awareness (Davidson & Jenkins, 1994; Fox & Routh, 1984; O'Connor et al., 1995; Torgesen et al., 1992) evaluated the children on word reading tasks that required the use of alphabetic skills, specifically letter-sound correspondences, and the phonological awareness skills of blending and segmenting. These four studies also met the final criterion of random assignment to treatment condition.
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ON INTEGRATION
Before developing the dimensions of a conceptual framework on integration in the specific context of letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness instruction, it was important to understand integration from a broad instructional perspective. To assist in conceptualizing integration from this broader perspective, a definition of integration and two examples of integration are provided.
An Instructional Perspective on Integration
Integration can be defined as the arrangement of separable component skills into a whole. To achieve certain outcomes, component skills must be taught to mastery in a specific order; that is, one component skill must be taught to mastery before another. For other outcomes, the order in which the component skills are taught to mastery may not matter. However, all component skills must be taught to mastery at some time to accomplish the outcome. The following examples provide a way to conceptualize integration from this broad instructional perspective.
Two instructional tasks, shoe tying and time telling, represent the extremes of what might be called order-specific integration (e.g., shoe tying) and order-neutral integration (e.g., time telling). When teaching shoe tying, four component skills must be taught: (a) lacing the shoe, (b) overlapping the laces, (c) knotting the laces, and (d) tying the bow. Each component skill must be taught to mastery in sequence to accomplish the outcome, a tied shoe.
When teaching time telling, four component tasks (i.e., preskills) must be taught to mastery to attain the outcome of accurate time telling: (a) knowledge of the direction in which the hands of the clock move; (b) the rule about the "little hand points and the big hand counts;" (c) the skill of counting by fives from 0-60; and (d) the ability to switch from counting by fives to counting by ones (Silbert, Carnine, & Stein, 1990). Any one of the first three component skills can be taught to mastery prior to teaching either of the other two. Counting by five, or the rule about the "little hand points and big hand counts" can be taught to mastery first. Neither component skill is a prerequisite for teaching the other skill to mastery. That is, unlike shoe tying, which requires that the component skills be taught to mastery sequentially (e.g., order-specific), the order for teaching the first three skills in time telling to mastery is not specified (i.e., order-neutral).
Development of the Dimensions of a Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework on integration includes at least two dimensions: (a) the order for sequencing sets of activities that will be integrated, and (b) the amount of time that is allocated for mastery of a skill or activity to a specific criterion level of performance. In the conceptual framework for examining the integration of the two component skills, letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness, order refers to the sequence of letter-sound correspondence activities and the phonological awareness skills of blending and segmenting.
Order dimension. The relationship between sets of activities can be classified into four categories: successive, parallel, integrated, and non-integrated. A relationship between sets of activities that is successive requires one set of activities to follow another set of activities, while a parallel relationship requires the two sets of activities to be taught within a specified period of time (e.g., within the same training session). The relationship between integrated sets of activities requires the two sets of activities to be systematically linked with explicit connections made between component skills. In contrast, the relationship between non-integrated sets of activities is discrete and kept separate from each other; that is, the two sets of activities are not linked. Naturally, there are various combinations of these four categories when integrating the sets of activities during instruction.
The order dimension for the conceptual framework combines these four categories for organizing the relationship between sets of activities to form six primary instructional sequences, as follows: (a) successive, (b) parallel, non-integrated, (c) parallel, integrated, (d) successive/parallel, non-integrated, (e) successive/ parallel, integrated, and (f) parallel, non-integrated/ successive/parallel, integrated. A generic description of these classifications for integrating sets of activities involving component skills is provided in Table 1. Because of space constraints, examples in which the description is applied to the integration of letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness instruction are provided for only two of the order sequences: parallel non-integrated and parallel integrated.
A parallel, non-integrated order refers to sets of activities that are taught within the same training session, but as discrete and separate activities in which no connection is made between the two sets of activities. In this order, phonological awareness and letter-sound correspondence are taught within the same training session, but as separate activities. No connection is developed between print and speech.
In a parallel non-integrated order children are taught the letter name and sound for m in the first activity during a lesson. In the second activity, children are taught to segment (i.e., say the individual sounds in the word map as /m/ /a/ /p/) and blend the individually pronounced sequences of phonemes (i.e., /m/ /a/ /p/ together to form the word map). The activities for letter-sound correspondences and the phonological awareness activities of blending and segmenting are taught within the same training session but separately. The activities for letter-sound correspondences and phonological awareness activities of blending and segmenting were not integrated because no explicit connection was made between the print (i.e., m = /m/) during the blending and segmenting activities. Although the first sound of the words used in the blending and segmenting was /mmmm/, no explicit connections were made between the print (i.e., the letter m that represents letter-sound correspondence) and speech (i.e., the auditory blending and segmenting activities).
A parallel integrated order, on the other hand, refers to a sequence in which two sets of activities are taught within the same training session, and the sets of activities are integrated and linked systematically with each other to establish explicit connections between activities. For example, phonological awareness and letter-sound correspondence activities are taught within the same training session and are integrated systematically and linked with each other to establish explicit connections between the two sets of activities. An example of a parallel integrated order follows.
The letter name and sound for m is taught, and the auditory skills of blending and segmenting are taught within the same training session. The two sets of activities are integrated when the teacher gives each child a card with the letter m on it and two blank cards. While pointing to the m letter card, the teacher says, "The name of this letter is m. The sound for this letter is /mmmm/. I'm going to say the sounds in the word map." The teacher now moves the letter card for m as s/he says the first sound in map. As the teacher moves each blank card, s/he pronounces the middle and last sound in the word map. The teacher then points to the letter card for m and says, "/Mmmm/ /aaaa/ /p/ begins...
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