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Article Excerpt
Abstract
This paper describes the results of archaeological excavations in the Pulemelei mound on Savai'i, thought to be the largest freestanding stone structure in Polynesia, in 2002-4. These excavations comprise the first large-scale archaeological investigation of a monumental complex in Samoa. We examine the chronology and function of the large mound and other structures.
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Prior to our investigations, the Pulemelei mound and other prehistoric features in the Letolo plantation had been surveyed, and used to interpret Samoan demography and settlement patterns in the late prehistoric period (Jennings et al. 1982; Scott 1969; Green 2002; Asaua 2005). The extensive survey of prehistoric remains at Letolo plantation by Gregory Jackmond in 1977-1978 recorded more than 3000 features, including 1059 stone platforms, roads, along with stone fences and walkways, earth ovens and refuse piles (Jennings et al. 1982: 87-93, see Wallin, Martinsson-Wallin and Clark, this publication, Figure 1). The Pulemelei mound in traditional history had been suggested to be a tia seu lupe (pigeon snaring mound) and/or the residence of the chief Lilomaiava Nailevaiiliili, who is suggested by Kramer (1994:243) to have lived 25 generations ago (ca. 1650-1680AD).
Previous researchers have noted: "four stone seats each with a conch shell" on top of the Pulemelei mound (Asaua 2005:82), and Scott (1969:82) reported the: "original informants suggestion that these [stone cairns] were receptacles or pedestals for large shell trumpets (foafoa)". A local tradition records that the mound was the residence of gods and spirits (atua, aitu), who were called back to the mound each night by the sound of a shell trumpet (Pulenu'u Toluono Pene, Vailoa village, pers. comm. 2006). A fragmentary shell trumpet (Cassis shell) was found beneath stones on the upper platform during cleaning of the mound in 1965 (Figure 1). A spire of Triton shell was also found on the smaller North mound (Scott 1969:86). During Scott's mapping (1969:80) ten stone cairns were found on top of the Pulemelei mound, but when the mound was re-mapped by us in 2002 about 40 cairns were recorded. The low cairns were removed during geophysical survey of the mound in 2004, but soon afterwards several cairns were set up. Workers from the local village who assisted in our investigations also brought shell trumpets to the Pulemelei mound.
Prior to our initial investigations in 2002, there was limited archaeological knowledge about the Pulemelei mound, particularly its age, function, and relationship with adjacent prehistoric structures. Our project also focused on understanding the social context out of which a mound building tradition emerged, and the cultural connections among the prehistoric societies in Fiji-West Polynesia. To investigate the origin and development of large mounds in Samoa archaeological excavation, remote sensing and detailed mapping were made at the Pulemelei mound during three field seasons from 2002 to 2004. The investigations had the following aims:
1. Determine the chronology and construction sequence of the Pulemelei mound and adjacent structures by archaeological investigation.
2. Examine the development and meaning of monumental architecture at the Letolo plantation, and contrast Samoan monuments with those from other parts of West Polynesia.
3. Provide archaeological fieldwork and cultural heritage training for Samoan and overseas students, particularly the management of monumental sites impacted by tourism.
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In this paper we focus on the first of these aims by presenting and discussing basic information about the archaeological investigations made at the Pulemelei site.
Mound building
The trend toward mound building in Samoa is apparent among other islands in West Polynesia during 1100-1700AD (Davidson 1979: 95; Green 2002). Contact and interaction between islands in West Polynesia is suggested by prehistoric material remains, and is evident in ethnohistorical accounts and traditional history (Clark 2002; Barns and Hunt 2005). However, the material expression is not homogeneous and differences among the late prehistoric landscapes of West Polynesia reflect the contingent cultural and environmental context on each island, and the specific influence of external interaction among island groups (see Clark and Martinsson-Wallin, this publication).
In Samoa, large house mounds of stone and earth are found on Savai'i and 'Upolu, but are rare or absent in American Samoa (Buist 1969:39; Davidson 1974:225-7; Clark 1996:452). Results of archaeological excavation and examination of traditional history suggest that large mounds--like those at Vailele on 'Upolu--had a residential function, and may have been constructed as early as 1100AD, with continued use until ca. 1800AD (Green and Davidson 1974:219). It is also possible that Samoan mound building was influenced by intermarriage and war with Tonga (Kirch 1984:238-42). Jennings et al. (1982:92) suggest that the Pulemelei mound was built in the 17th century, as large mounds investigated at Mt Olo were likely to date to this period. Traditional records indicate that large mounds could have several functions including pigeon snaring, house foundations and ceremonial use (Scott 1969:87-90; Tamasese 2003, 2004). It has also been suggested that large Samoan mounds might be chiefly burial structures similar to the Tongan langi, but Davidson (1974:229-30) concluded that burials mainly occurred in shallow pits under, or, close to house foundations, and the raised mounds were residential units for high chiefs or were foundations for religious structures.
The Letolo site survey of prehistoric structures made by Jackmond (1977-78) has been used previously to analyse the distribution of prehistoric remains, particularly stone mounds, in order to reconstruct the Samoan settlement pattern. Results showed that settlement at Letolo was similar to that reported at Mt Olo on 'Upolu and Sa'papaili on Savai'i, although being slightly larger in extent. According to Jennings et al. (1982:87-92) the Letolo settlement consisted of five village 'wards' (pitonu'u), each of which comprised a cluster of two-to-five large platforms near a primary walkway and 50-75 household units enclosed by walkways and fences.
Site setting
At Letolo plantation in Palauli district the large stepped mound known as Pulemelei is situated about 1.5 km inland from the coast at ca. 100 m above sea level (Figure 2). It has the base dimensions of ca. 65 m by 60 m and a maximum above ground height of ca. 12 m. The plantation extends from the coast ca. 2.5 km inland to ca. 250 m above sea level (asl) on the south coast of Savai'i, and is bounded to the east by the Faleata River and on the west by the Seugagogo River.
The Letolo plantation is owned by the Nelson extended family, and in the past has been a copra plantation. The land is currently used for cattle grazing, but there are plans to develop the area for tourism in the future. According to Vailoa village the freehold plantation land is considered to be village land, and there have been several disputes between the plantation owners and the matai of Vailoa over the years. Ownership of the Letolo plantation is the subject of a current court case. Since plantation activities ceased in the 1980s a thick growth of secondary tropical vegetation has covered most of the plantation, but the Pulemelei mound and the Afu Aau (Olemoe) waterfall on the property are two of the main tourist attractions on Savai'i, and these are cleared and managed periodically.
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Archaeological investigations 2002-2004
The archaeological investigation of the Pulemelei mound involved collaboration between academics (Helene Martinsson-Wallin, Paul Wallin, Kon-Tiki Museum Research Institute and Geoffrey Clark, Australian National University) and Samoan land owners represented by the board of the Nelson Corporation. Fieldwork was carried out during September 13-October 10 2002, July 17-August 15 2003, and June 5-25 2004. Preliminary results from the excavations have been presented in several reports and papers (Wallin et al. 2002; Martinsson-Wallin 2003, 2005; Martinsson-Wallin et al. 2003, 2005). Additional excavation carded out at Letolo in March 2006 is reported elsewhere (Martinsson-Wallin et al. 2006).
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The 2002 field season concentrated on clearing and mapping the Pulemelei mound, which was covered in a thick growth of tree and scrub vegetation, with several small test excavations made around the base of the mound. An area of ca. 20,000 [m.sup.2] was cleared of vegetation during investigations (Figure 3 a, b, c). In Scott's (1969: 81) initial...
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