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Article Excerpt
Although research has identified gender differences in the interpersonal antecedents of depressive symptoms in youth, little is known about gender differences in the interpersonal consequences of depression. The goal of the present research was to examine gender differences in the influence of early-onset depressive symptoms on adolescent friendships and self-perceived peer acceptance. Third
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Theory and research on the emergence of gender differences in depression propose that gender-linked interpersonal characteristics and experiences heighten risk for depression in adolescent girls (for reviews, see Hankin & Abramson, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994; Rudolph, 2002). In particular, this line of research focuses on the idea that girls' reliance on close relationships for a sense of worth and emotional well-being places them at risk for developing depression during adolescence, a period characterized by interpersonal challenge and disruption. However, interpersonal models of depression emphasize a transactional association between depression and social impairment--that is, relationship difficulties precipitate depression, which then creates further social impairment (Joiner, Coyne, & Blalock, 1999). Unfortunately, relatively little is known about gender differences in the interpersonal consequences of depression. The goal of the present research was to examine the hypothesis that early-onset depressive symptoms would take a greater toll on girls' than boys' friendships and, more broadly, on girls' perceived peer acceptance during adolescence.
Gender Differences in the Consequences of Depressive Symptoms for Friendships
Research reveals significant differences in the friendships of girls and boys (for a review, see Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Based on these differences, we predicted that depressive symptoms would interfere more with the development and maintenance of close friendships in girls than in boys. Although the presence of gender differences in the nature of friendships does not necessarily mean that there will be gender differences in the influence of depressive symptoms on friendships, we hypothesized that this might be the case for several reasons.
Girls' friendships typically are characterized by greater exchange of emotional provisions than those of boys. For example, compared to boys, girls report that their friendships involve more closeness (Bukowski, Hoza, & Boivin, 1994), affection (Furman & Buhrmester, 1985), nurturance (Lempers & Clark-Lempers, 1993), and validation (Parker & Asher, 1993). Meeting the heightened emotional demands of girls' friendships (e.g., providing friends with affection and validation) likely requires a significant amount of emotional energy and competence. Symptoms of depression, such as a lack of motivation, negative affect, and fatigue, might interfere with girls' ability to mobilize the necessary resources for establishing and maintaining close friendships. Moreover, girls experience more stress and conflict in their peer relationships than do boys, particularly during adolescence (Rudolph & Hammen, 1999). Because youths with depressive symptoms demonstrate difficulty with emotion regulation and coping with social challenges (Rudolph, Hammen, & Burge, 1997; Zahn-Waxler, Klimes-Dougan, & Slattery, 2000), successfully negotiating these stressful aspects of female friendships might present a challenge to girls with depressive symptoms. In contrast, typical male friendships likely place fewer emotional demands on boys and are characterized by lower levels of stress and conflict. Thus, they might be less disrupted by depressive symptoms.
Girls and boys also demonstrate different behavioral styles in their friendships. Girls spend more time engaged in social conversation and report more self-disclosure in their friendships than do boys (Ladd, 1983; Moller, Hymel, & Rubin, 1992; Rose, 2002), whereas boys engage in more organized group-based play than do girls (e.g., sports) (Moller et al., 1992; Zarbatany, McDougal, & Hymel, 2000). These gender-linked behavioral styles might create a context in which the disruptive influence of depressive symptoms is more apparent in the friendships of girls than boys. For example, because girls engage in more intimate social exchange, they might expect their friends to be very involved and to provide caring and supportive reactions to their disclosures. Thus, the social disengagement that is frequently associated with depression (Bell-Dolan, Reaven, & Petersen, 1993) might be interpreted as a lack of interest in, or concern about, the friend. Boys, in contrast, might be less aware or less concerned about social disengagement due to different contexts (e.g., group-based activities) and expectations (e.g., less of a focus on intimate exchange) of their friendships. Thus, depressive symptoms might lead to the dissolution of friendships over time in girls more than in boys.
Moreover, if depressed girls do engage in self-disclosure, these efforts might actually elicit negative responses from their friends. Specifically, depressive symptoms are associated with a negative focus on the self (Cole, Martin, Peeke, Seroczynski, & Fier, 1999; Pomerantz & Rudolph, 2003) and a tendency to engage in more negative statements during conversations with friends (Segrin & Flora, 1998). Although self-disclosure, and even corumination between friends (i.e., a tendency to excessively discuss problems in the context of a dyadic relationship), typically are associated with closer friendships (Rose, 2002), one-sided or excessive negative self-disclosure might instead alienate friends. Consistent with this possibility, individuals with a tendency toward excessive reassurance seeking (i.e., frequent efforts to seek reassurance about one's worth or likeability) (Potthoff, Holahan, & Joiner, 1995) and youths with negative self-views (Caldwell, Rudolph, Troop-Gordon, & Kim, 2004) create stress in their relationships. Resulting negative feedback from peers might cause depressed girls to construe their friendships in a more negative light.
A few studies support the idea that depressive symptoms undermine girls' friendships more than boys' friendships. For example, depression is associated more strongly with the generation of interpersonal stress and conflict in girls than in boys (Rudolph & Hammen, 1999; Rudolph et al., 2000). Moreover, certain depression-linked interpersonal behaviors (excessive reassurance seeking, negative feedback seeking) predict deteriorating friendship quality in girls but not in boys (Borelli & Prinstein, 2006; Prinstein, Borelli, Cheah, Simon, & Aikins, 2005). Thus, over time, depressed girls might come to see their close friendships as having fewer positive features (e.g., support, intimacy, companionship) and more negative features (e.g., conflict, betrayal). Moreover, this poorer perceived friendship quality might lead to the dissolution of friendships. We predicted, therefore, that girls with early-onset depressive symptoms would show more declines in their number of reciprocated friendships and would ascribe less-favorable characteristics to their perceived best friendship than would boys during early adolescence.
Gender Differences in the Consequences of Depressive Symptoms for Perceived Peer Acceptance
There are several reasons to expect that depressive symptoms might lead youths to form negative perceptions of their acceptance within peer relationships. First, if depressed youths receive consistent negative feedback from friends and peers they might blame themselves for their social failures and experience declines in their perceived peer acceptance over time (Pomerantz & Rudolph, 2003). Second, depressed mood might lead to cognitive biases regardless of youths' actual level of social functioning. That is, theory and research suggest that mood colors people's self-perceptions (Schwarz & Clore, 1998), such that experiencing a depressed mood might foster negative views of the self. Third, the rumination associated with depression might lead depressed youths to dwell on negative aspects of their social experiences and themselves (Lyubomirsky, Caldwell, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998), leading them to question their social acceptance. Fourth, research suggests that depressed youths seek out feedback that confirms their derogatory self-views (e.g., Joiner, Katz, & Lew, 1997); this negative feedback might lead to further declines in their perceived peer acceptance. Consistent with the proposal that depression compromises youths' perceived peer acceptance, depressive symptoms are associated with subsequent maladaptive attributions about social failure (Pomerantz & Rudolph, 2003) and a tendency to underestimate one's social competence relative to one's actual performance (Cole, Martin, Peeke, Seroczynski, & Hoffman, 1998; Pomerantz & Rudolph, 2003).
Depressive symptoms might foster stronger declines in perceived peer acceptance in girls than in boys. Girls ruminate about their depressive symptoms (Rose, 2002) and about peer problems (Broderick, 1998) more than do boys; rumination is, in turn, associated with lower self-esteem (Broderick, 1998). This ruminative self-focus, coupled with greater actual impairment in their relationships, might cause depressed girls to view their social acceptance in a more negative light over time as compared to depressed boys. Thus, we predicted that early-onset depressive symptoms would more strongly...
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