...Therefore, social workers must understand engaging residents in volunteer activities in their neighborhood benefits them individually and collectively. This study examined the relationship between resident involvement in neighborhood organizations and volunteers' self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and sense of community by surveying members and participants of four neighborhood organizations in poor communities in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Results demonstrated that volunteers involved in the organization's everyday activities and in decision making received the most benefits, including increased self-efficacy (leadership, policy control, neighborhood policy control, and knowledge and skills), organizational collective efficacy, and sense of community. Involvement in the everyday activities alone increased volunteers' self-efficacy and organizational collective efficacy. Implications for social work practice and strategies for developing the volunteer capacity of community-based organizations are discussed.

KEY WORDS: citizen participation; collective efficacy; neighborhood organizations; self-efficacy; sense of community

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Citizen participation is the active, voluntary involvement of individuals and groups in changing problematic conditions in communities and influencing the policies and programs that affect the quality of their lives and the lives of other residents (Gamble & Well, 1995). One of the most important resources of small, voluntary organizations is the participation of members who dedicate their time and energy, which must be mobilized into active involvement and performance of tasks (Chinman & Wandersman, 1999; Wandersman & Florin, 2000). Neighborhood organizations working in poor communities typically have little staff and often rely on volunteers to accomplish their goals (Chinman & Wandersman).Therefore, it is important for social workers to understand the individual and collective benefits residents may receive through volunteering in their own communities. Theory and earlier research on self- and collective efficacy and sense of community have suggested that citizen participation is a vehicle through which residents can increase their individual and collective capacities, as well as connections to their neighborhood. This study examined the relationship between citizen participation in neighborhood organizations in poor communities and volunteers' self- and collective efficacy and sense of community. A greater understanding of how citizen participation benefits volunteers can help social workers and neighborhood leaders develop more effective strategies for engaging residents in neighborhood improvement and other volunteer efforts in their community.

EFFECTS OF CITIZEN PARTICIPATION

This study is guided by the ecological perspective and by theory and research on self- and collective efficacy and sense of community. Pinderhughes (1983) used an ecological framework to suggest that the powerlessness of individuals living in poor communities can only be addressed through strategies by which people can influence the external social system to reduce destructive forces and work with systems outside the family, such as churches, businesses, or schools, to improve their environment. Citizen participation is a means by which residents can influence external social systems and work with neighbors and community organizations to improve their neighborhoods. Theory and research on self-efficacy, collective efficacy, and sense of community demonstrates how citizen participation can benefit volunteers by facilitating their individual and collective capacities and sense of connection to their community.

Self-Efficacy

Bandura (1982) described self-efficacy as an individual's self-judgment about his or her capabilities to organize and execute the actions necessary to achieve desired goals. Residents who have strong beliefs in their capabilities will approach stressors with the assurance that they can exercise some control over them, including the problems often found in disadvantaged neighborhoods (Bandura, 1989). Research has shown that actively engaging residents in efforts to improve their communities is associated with increased feelings of self-efficacy and empowerment. In a study of resident activists in Israel, Itzhaky and York (2000a) found that organizational participation contributed to participants' sense of control over personal and community decisions, participation in decision making contributed to control over services, and participation as a representative of other residents contributed to personal empowerment (defined as a sense of control over personal and community decisions and services for their children and families). In a longitudinal study, Itzhaky and York (2002) found that citizen participation led to increases in residents' self-esteem and feelings of mastery of their surroundings (that is, control of the environment and the future), as well as increases in personal empowerment and community empowerment (that is, understanding services in the community, knowing how to improve services, lobbying, and maintaining strong contacts with politicians).

Sociopolitical control refers to beliefs about one's capabilities, efficacy, and sense of control in social and political systems (Zimmerman & Zahniser, 1991). Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) found that greater participation among students and community residents in a variety of community organizations was related to both increased expectations and actual experiences of personal and political efficacy (for example, competence and mastery, sense of control and civic duty). In a series of studies, Zimmerman and Zahniser found that individuals who were more involved in voluntary organizations and community activities scored higher on sociopolitical control measures (leadership competence and policy control) than those who were less involved. Itzhaky and York (2000b) found that citizen participation was associated with greater sociopolitical control among experienced community activists. Specifically, participation level contributed to policy control and leadership competence, and participation in decision making contributed to policy control.

Collective Efficacy

Although self-efficacy theory focuses on an individual's belief in or judgment about his or her capabilities, collective efficacy theory explains group members' belief in or judgment about their capability to intervene in neighborhood issues to maintain social control and solve problems (Wandersman & Florin, 2000). Collective efficacy can be conceptualized as both a neighborhood and an organizational process. Neighborhood collective efficacy is defined as the connection of mutual trust and social cohesion with shared expectations for intervening in support of neighborhood social control (Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999). Sampson and Raudenbush argued that residents are not likely to take action in neighborhoods in which people mistrust each other and the rules are unclear. Citizen participation is a potential mechanism for facilitating neighborhood collective efficacy by providing opportunities for neighbors to develop trusting relationships, which creates the foundation for...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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