...conceptual complexity moral reasoning their education. Implications for counselor training are presented.

**********

An estimated 11.8 million Americans are dependent on illicit drugs or alcohol, and 1.5 million are dependent on both alcohol and other drugs (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 1999). Yet resources for treating substance abuse (SA) problems have decreased (Kinney, 2000). The 28-day residential program was once the treatment of choice and was covered by most health insurance companies. Nevertheless, from 1988 to 1998 the average length of stay in an inpatient SA setting decreased from 28 days to 3.5 days (Hundsicker, as cited in Yeager, 1999). The reduction in available SA treatment services is further complicated by the increase in diversity among SA clientele. Historically, the typical SA client was a White, middle-aged, middle-class man. This is no longer the case (Lewis, Dana, & Blevins, 1994). SA counselors are faced with the challenge of providing, with limited treatment options, effective treatment to a diverse client population. For SA counselors to have the skills and abilities to treat this diverse group effectively, their education, training, and credentialing are paramount.

The Debate Concerning SA Counselor Licensure Requirements

The minimum education and experience requirements for SA counselor licensure continue to be debated. In most counseling-related helping professions, the minimum educational requirement is a master's degree (McGuire & Cottone, 2003). The field of SA counseling has been an exception. The education of SA counselors can vary from a graduate degree in a counseling-related field and state or national licensure to a high school diploma and state or national SA certification (Bissell & Royce, 1994). These variances in educational background tend to reflect recovery status. Nonrecovering counselors are likely to have a graduate degree and a professional license, whereas recovering counselors are likely to have a high school diploma and SA certification (Culbreth, 2000). To assist in resolving the debate concerning the educational and experience requirements for SA counselor licensure, investigators have conducted research concerning recovering and nonrecovering counselors.

When exploring the research related to the characteristics and counseling approaches of recovering versus nonrecovering counselors, experimenters have found differences. Recovering counselors tend (a) to be less educated and older (McGovern & Armstrong, 1987; Stoffelmayr, Mavis, & Kasim, 1998), (b) to assess problem drinking differently (Leavy, 1991), (c) to use different treatment methods (Stoffelmayr et al., 1998), and (d) to have different personality characteristics from nonrecovering counselors (Moyers & Miller, 1993). It is not clear, however, whether these differences are due to counselor recovery status, educational level, or some other variable. One possible link to understanding SA counselor differences is counselors' level of cognitive development.

Cognitive Developmental Theory (CDT)

CDT is based on assumptions that explain how individuals assimilate information and make meaning of their experiences. The three major constructs of CDT are that (a) individuals move through stages of cognition on the basis of how they make meaning of their world; (b) stages of growth or change are sequential and hierarchical, whereas an individual's growth from one stage to the next depends on interactions with the environment; and (c) individuals at lower levels of cognitive complexity tend to be more rigid and concrete and less flexible in problem solving (Sprinthall & Thies-Sprinthall, 1983). Without a growth-producing environment, individuals will not reach their developmental potential. Individuals at higher levels of cognitive complexity tend to be more adaptable and capable of complex reasoning in problem solving.

CDT is made up of a number of domains, such as cognitive development (Piaget, 1983), ego development (Loevinger, 1976), moral development (Kohlberg, 1969), and conceptual development (Hunt, 1971). This article focuses on moral and conceptual development. For the purposes of this article, we use the terms conceptual development and conceptual complexity interchangeably, as we do the terms moral development and moral reasoning.

Cognitive Developmental Growth

Conceptual systems theory (CST) refers to a developmental system of organizing personality on the basis of individual differences in social cognition (Hunt, 1975). The CST framework addresses the processes involved in one's ability to first recognize and decide on a course of action and then have the ability to sustain the effort that it takes to proceed. According to this framework, individuals progress on a continuum of functioning from concrete to abstract. Higher levels of abstract functioning provide individuals with multiple alternatives in evaluation and behavior, allowing them to respond more relativistically and less dichotomously.

Moral reasoning is another domain of CDT. Moral reasoning focuses on normative judgments and centers on what is right or obligatory in a certain dilemma. Accordingly, moral reasoning has more to do with weighting values than with sheer facts about a dilemma. Moral judgments arise from this moral reasoning process, and the judgments tell one what one should do whenever conflicting opinions arise. These moral concerns center on issues of fairness and justice. Higher levels of formal education have been found to be positively related to higher levels of moral reasoning (Rest & Narvaez, 1994; Rest, Narvaez, Bebeau, & Thoma, 1999). Moral reasoning tends to increase as long as an individual remains in formal education. Once the individual leaves the formal educational environment, a plateau in moral growth is observed (Rest et al., 1999).

Social role-taking experiences also seem to promote moral growth (Kohlberg, 1969). Such occurrences are "those social experiences in which...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



More articles from Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling
Boredom proneness, social connectedness, and sexual addiction among me..., April 01, 2006
An interview with Frank Miller about the substance abuse subtle screen..., April 01, 2006

Looking for additional articles?
Search our database of over 3 million articles.

Looking for more in-depth information on this industry?
Search our complete database of Industry & Market reports by text, subject, publication name or publication date.

About Goliath
Whether you're looking for sales prospects, competitive information, company analysis or best practices in managing your organization, Goliath can help you meet your business needs.

Our extensive business information databases empower business professionals with both the breadth and depth of credible, authoritative information they need to support their business goals. Whether it be strategic planning, sales prospecting, company research or defining management best practices - Goliath is your leading source for accurate information.