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Article Excerpt
All people have implicit assumptions, often existing outside conscious awareness, about a range of human attributes. Mental health counselors may have unique sets of implicit assumptions about human nature which affect their view of client problems and influence their professional behavior This article describes possible sets of counseling-relevant assumptions about human nature and discusses the importance of mental health counselors gaining greater awareness of their assumptions. Strategies for increasing this awareness are presented, and implications for mental health counseling educators and supervisors are discussed.
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A critical element in the training and ongoing professional development of mental health counselors is the development and refinement of self-knowledge (Mahoney, 1998). Indeed, developing a better understanding of oneself as well as others is explicitly stated in the preamble of the Code of Ethics of the American Mental Health Counselors Association (2000). One aspect of serf-knowledge is becoming aware of one's unique set of implicit beliefs. Theory and research from several fields indicate that people have implicit beliefs and assumptions about a range of human attributes. These unspoken beliefs and assumptions have been alternately labeled implicit theories (e.g., Dweck, Hang, & Chiu, 1993), philosophies of human nature (Wrightsman, 1992), personal constructs (Kelly, 1955), and tacit assumptions about human nature (Mahoney, 1991).
Recent research has demonstrated the influence of implicit assumptions on people's beliefs and behavior. One line of research on people's implicit theories has explored individuals' tendencies to believe that human attributes such as intelligence and moral character are either fixed or malleable. These implicit theories have been experimentally linked to a number of outcomes. For example, college students who tended to believe human attributes were relatively fixed were more likely to change to a different college major when experiencing academic difficulties, while students believing human attributes are changeable were more likely to stick with their current major in similar circumstances (Zuckerman, Gagne, & Nafshi, 2001). In simulations where individuals were asked to judge the guilt or innocence of criminal defendants, individuals who believed human qualities were relatively fixed were more likely to make judgments of guilt based on initial impressions of the character of the defendant and are more likely to view the goal of imprisonment as being punishment rather than rehabilitation (Gervey, Chiu, Hong, & Dweck, 1999). A tendency to view human attributes as fixed has also been linked to an increased likelihood of believing stereotypical information about groups of people and a greater tendency to perceive less intragroup variability among stereotyped groups (Levy, Stroessner, & Dweck, 1998).
Other types of implicit theories have also been studied. An individual's level of satisfaction with a romantic relationship that falls short of ideal has been found to depend on whether the individual has an implicit belief that the success of romantic relationships is a matter of destiny or that romantic relationships can develop with work over time (Knee, Nanayakkara, Vietor, Neighbors, & Patrick, 2001). In addition, research indicates that mothers who have implicit theories consistent with either a whole language approach or a phonics-based approach to reading development tend to model and encourage literacy behaviors in their children consistent with the implicit beliefs (DeBaryshe, Binder, & Buell, 2000).
The assumptions and beliefs that people have about human nature can be described as "attitudes about people in general--attitudes that emphasize the interpersonal qualities of people. They are expectancies that people possess certain qualities and will behave toward others in certain ways" (Wrightsman, 1992, p. 45). These expectancies are necessary to function effectively in our highly social world. Imagine the difficulty people would have if they were unable to predict with some degree of accuracy the behavior of serving staff in restaurants, fellow spectators at cultural or sporting events, or motorists at a four-way stop sign. The key point is that these assumptions and expectancies exist, they are widely held, and they are often difficult for individuals to recognize and verbalize. They are not unique impressions one forms of other individuals after having some contact with them. They are not personal values, which are explicit propositions about the way the world should be. They are not beliefs, which are explicit views of how the world really is in the eyes of the perceiver (Najavits, 1997). They are not an individual's moral beliefs.
Instead, assumptions about human nature are broader and more pervasive than specific impressions of unique individuals and are not consciously reflected upon as are personal values, beliefs, and morals. The hallmark of these assumptions is that they are unexamined and largely outside of awareness.
It is clear...
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