...coaching other disciplines and the relative value using external versus internal coaches (Lyons, 2005; Sherman and Freas, 2004). The concept of executive coaching appears to be oriented to the utilization of external coaches helping individual executive clients (Feldman and Lankau, 2005; Stober, 2005), while managerial coaching focuses on the utilization of managers within organizations engaging in helping relation ships with their fellow employees (Kouzes and Posner, 2005; Noer, 2005). This exploratory research focused on managerial coaching using participants from Saudi Arabian and U.S. organizations.

Regardless of its orientation, the foundations of coaching seem to be rooted in the modern Western (primarily U.S.) managerial values of participation, accountability, and free choice (Hargrove, 1995; Witworth et al., 1998). However, there has been little empirical research or critical analysis of the specific behaviors involved in the process (Campbell, 1989; Day, 2001; Kilburg, 1996). From a global perspective, there has been no research that has examined the link between coaching behaviors and culturally defined values and norms outside the U.S. or Western Europe.

In this study, we describe and test a model of managerial coaching with a sample of Saudi Arabian and U.S. managers and examine cultural influences on coaching behaviors. Following a brief explanation of the rationale for the study, we review the literature on coaching and comparative studies of Saudi management culture, and present our hypotheses. The study methodology details the composition of the two samples and the research instruments employed. The analysis and results sections focus on describing the observed differences in coaching behaviors between the two subject groups. Finally, the discussion section presents lessons learned from the research and insights about limitations and possible future directions for continued research in this area.

RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY

Saudi Arabia is an increasingly important economic and political ally of the United States. The Saudi organization within which this research was conducted is large, multi-faceted, and controls, what has been estimated, as a quarter of all the known oil reserves in the world (Ray, 2005). As managers from the Saudi and U.S. cultures continue to interact, an understanding of cultural similarities and differences can facilitate cross-cultural communications and boundary spanning. Recently, Golden and Veiga (2005) developed a cross-cultural boundary spanning model based on five cultural dimensions articulated by Hofstede (1980, 2001), and posited that effective cross-cultural boundary spanning by teams and organizations necessitates an understanding of these dimensions. This study uses a similar framework to understand coaching behaviors in Saudi and U.S. organizations.

The Saudi organization where this study took place was facing the need to increase efficiency due to rising costs and global competition, manage a growing number of international joint ventures requiring cross-cultural understanding, and deal with a significant reduction of U.S., British, and Canadian expatriate managers due to a government mandated reduction in the number of non-Saudi employees. From a talent management standpoint, the existing performance appraisal, professional development, and succession planning systems were not seen by top management as adequately preparing the organization and its people for these imminent challenges. Seeking to quickly remedy this situation, the organization turned to managerial coaching as an intervention and means to facilitate the necessary employee development in order to contend with the new business climate.

We were unable to discover any evidence of coaching as a management development strategy within other organizations in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and, although our host organization is widely recognized as the most modern and progressive employer in the Kingdom, there was no history of a coaching strategy. Through a consulting relationship with the top executive of this firm, we had the unique opportunity to help create a coaching strategy for management development and, concurrently, pursue research on culturally derived Saudi coaching behaviors.

COACHING AS A HELPING RELATIONSHIP

Coaching has been generally described as a one-on-one approach to facilitate individual learning and behavioral change (Day, 2001; Hall et al., 1999). It involves the use of a wide variety of behavioral methods and techniques to assist a client to achieve personal and/or professional goals (Kilburg, 1996). Some of the more common activities include developing self-awareness, learning and practicing new skills, in-depth role-playing, behavior modeling and intensive feedback. In addition to improving personal performance, Katz and Miller (1996) suggested that coaching could be used to understand and affect any number of important organizational changes, thus improving organizational performance. For any coaching to be effective, it is important that the coach have the ability to establish an authentic connection with the person being coached, or as Peterson and Hicks describe, "forge a partnership" (1996: 29). Quick and Macik-Frey (2004) describe the coaching relationship as one that requires mutual trust and respect, and, from the coach's perspective, a deep insight into the needs and values of the other person. Kilburg (2000) echoed this sentiment by conceptualizing coaching as a helping relationship, and Witworth, Kimsey-House and Sandahl (1998) suggested that coaching would be most effective when the agenda of the person being coached was the sole focus of the coaching relationship. For the purposes of this research, we conceptualize coaching as a client-centered helping relationship that benefits both the individual and the organization.

COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF THE SAUDI MANAGEMENT CULTURE

Compared to other geographic regions, there has been relatively little management research in Arab countries in general, and within Arab countries, even less in Saudi Arabia (Dedoussis, 2004; Robertson et al., 2001). A review of the literature produced no studies on the relationship of the Saudi management culture to coaching behaviors. Given the scant literature base from which to build, we sought to support the relationships between coaching and Saudi culture posited by this study by extending the literature base available from other Saudi managerial studies. Hofstede's (1980) oft-cited classical comparative study provides a useful frame of reference. However, it did not single out Saudi Arabia, but rather bundled it with a group of six other "Arab countries." As Robertson et al. (2001) pointed out, there are a number of differences among the management cultures of Middle-Eastern and Arab countries. Bjerke...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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