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...data analysis. Significant differences existed for all three variables--race, gender, and family structure---with teachers more likely contact the school counselor when the student was male, African American, or living in a non-intact family structure.
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Students today face a myriad of issues that may interfere with learning. For example, school violence is a focus of national attention and concern. More recently, the issues of terrorism and war have come to the forefront of our national attention. Since September 11, 2001, we have lost the innocence and sense of security that we once had as U.S. citizens. Since the beginning of the War on Terror and Operation Iraqi Freedom, schools have seen more and more students with parents or other loved ones overseas in active military duty, thereby creating conditions that may interfere with learning (Davis & Robelen, 2003; Jerome, Lang, & Brass, 2005). Issues closer to home can affect student learning as well. Changes in family structure (Simons, 1996) and academic and behavior problems (Baker & Gerler, 2004) are areas where concerns may arise regardless of the world or national situation.
With the critical challenges that schools face today, it is important to examine school-based student support services and determine how schools make use of these services to provide needed support and assistance to students, parents, and school staff. School counselors provide services that are designed to ensure the overall functioning of the school and the well-being of those who both teach and learn there on a daily basis, and they are in a position to address many of the concerns schools face today (Baker & Gerler, 2004; Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, 2001; Davis, 1999; Myrick, 1993; Riley & McDaniel, 2000).
STANDARDIZATION OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR ROLE
Because job descriptions of school counselors often vary considerably from state to state with expectations of individual school counselors varying even from school to school (Sciarra, 2004), there has been a movement to standardize the role of the school counselor across the country (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Education Trust, 1997). However, debate over the most appropriate role for school counselors continues (Brown & Trusty, 2005; Campbell & Dahir; Carroll, 1996; Davis, 1999; Education Trust; Gysbers, 1990; Sink, 2005; Thompson, 1992). Along with the increased demand for accountability among teachers and administrators in schools, there has come an increased focus on school counselors as well. One problem related to this increased attention is that there has been little empirical research to support the efficacy of counselors in schools (Baker, 2000; Brown & Trusty; Sink). Coupled with this lack of data is the nationwide inconsistency of the role of school counselor. Historically, the role of the school counselor has been ambiguous, inconsistent from institution to institution and system to system (Gysbers, 2001), and even determined by the school administrator (Dahir, 2000).
Sensing the need for unification of the profession of school counseling, and in response to the movement for accountability of school counselors, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), in conjunction with the Education Trust, developed a set of national standards for school counseling programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997). These National Standards, and the subsequent ASCA National Model[R], were designed to provide a unified, professional role for school counselors that would be uniformly implemented across the nation. According to these National Standards, the emphasis of school counseling programs is to promote and enhance student learning (Campbell & Dahir). In addition, authors have suggested that a collaborative model for helping students with academic, emotional, and behavioral problems, which includes key figures in students' lives (e.g., teachers, administrators, parents, counselors, family members, community members), is the most effective way to help these students (Adams & Juhnke, 2001; Baker & Gerler, 2004; Eber, Nelson, & Miles, 1997; Handron, Dosser, McCammon, & Powell, 1998; Rosenblatt, 1996; VanDenBerg & Grealish, 1996).
REFERRALS TO SCHOOL COUNSELORS
Within schools, teachers are the primary source by which students are referred to school counselors (Carlson, 1990). Students are referred to school counselors for a variety of reasons, including academic problems, behavior problems, attendance, class participation, and changes in family structure (Carlson; Persi, 1997). Little is known, however, about the frequency with which teachers refer students or the actual reasons that such referrals are made. In addition, assumptions that teachers make about students' problems and unrealistic expectations that teachers have for counselors to "fix" the child (Jackson, 2000) may hinder rather than advance comprehensive school counseling programs.
Because there has been such a push for accountability among professional educators in recent years, it has become more important than ever that school counselors are able to articulate what their role is (Dahir, 2000; Gysbers, 2001). In order to ensure that professional school counselors are meeting the guidelines set forth in the National Standards, it is important to understand how their services are used. Examining past and current usage of school counseling services will allow school counselors to understand how they have been previously and are currently meeting the needs represented in their schools and to make adjustments to programs to reflect the National Standards. Understanding of the usage of school counseling services also will enable school counselors to educate administrators, teachers, parents, and students regarding appropriate...
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