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Article Excerpt
Abstract. The purpose of the two studies reported in this article was to evaluate the effectiveness of extended vocabulary instruction during storybook reading with kindergarten students within a small-group intervention setting. Extended vocabulary instruction is characterized by explicit teaching that includes both contextual and definitional information, multiple exposures to target words in varied contexts, and experiences that promote deep processing of word meanings. In Study One, we compared extended instruction of target words to incidental exposure. In Study Two, we compared extended instruction to embedded instruction (i.e., providing simple definitions within the context of the story). Our findings indicated that extended instruction resulted in greater word learning than either incidental exposure or embedded instruction. Moreover, students maintained much of their understanding of word meanings six to eight weeks after instruction. Implications are discussed in relation to a tri-level approach to vocabulary instruction and intervention for kindergarten students at risk for language and reading disabilities.
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Children begin kindergarten with important differences in vocabulary knowledge. While some children enter school with thousands of hours of exposure to books and a wealth of rich and supportive oral language experiences, others begin school with very limited knowledge of language and word meanings (Hart & Risley, 1995; National Research Council, 1998). This vocabulary gap grows larger in the early grades as children with limited vocabulary knowledge grow much more discrepant over time from their peers who have rich vocabulary knowledge (Becker, 1977; Stanovich, 1986). Biemiller and Slonim (2001) estimated that most of the vocabulary differences among children emerge before grade two, at which point children with high vocabularies know approximately 4,000 more root word meanings than children who are experiencing delays in vocabulary development. Compounding this situation, children who have difficulty learning word identification skills are also less able to develop their vocabulary knowledge through independent reading (Cunninghan & Stanovich, 1998).
Young children who fall behind their peers in developing vocabulary knowledge are at significant risk for experiencing serious reading and learning difficulties and, ultimately, being identified as having a language or reading disability. Although vocabulary knowledge is less related to the acquisition of beginning code-based reading skills such as phonemic awareness and word identification skills, it becomes increasingly more predictive of overall reading proficiency as students progress through the elementary grades (Scarborough, 2005; Storch & Whitehurst, 2002). As the vocabulary gap among students widens and texts become more complex, vocabulary knowledge becomes a critical determinant of successful comprehension (Becket, 1977; Stahl, 1991). Similarly, longitudinal research suggests that early language and vocabulary deficits are predictive of later learning disabilities related specifically to reading comprehension (Catts, Hogan, & Adlof 2005).
Similar to the research on preventing word identification difficulties, there is mounting evidence of a corresponding need to target vocabulary development efforts on prevention and early intervention, before an insurmountable vocabulary gap arises between students at risk for reading disability and their peers who are not at risk (Biemiller, 2001; Rand Reading Study Group, 2002). Currently, however, very little intentional, teacher-directed vocabulary instruction or intervention takes place in schools, particularly before third grade (Baumann, Kame'enui, & Ash, 2003).
An extensive and growing literature suggests that structured and supported oral language activities, such as listening to and discussing storybooks, is a promising way to promote language and vocabulary development in young children (Bus, van Ijzendoorn, & Pellegrini, 1995; Van Kleck, & Stahl, & Bauer, 2003; Whitehurst et al., 1999). For example, studies have found that children can learn the meanings of unknown words through incidental exposure during shared storybook reading activities (Elley, 1989; Nicholson & Whyte, 1992; Senechal & Cornell, 1993; Robbins & Ehri, 1994). Research has also shown that children can learn word meanings through incidental exposure while viewing video narratives (Oetting, Rice, & Swank, 1995).
Unfortunately, these activities are not equally effective for all students. That is, children who are at risk for reading disability with lower initial vocabularies are less likely than their peers with higher vocabularies to learn words incidentally while listening to stories (Coyne, Simmons, Kame'enui, & Stoolmiller, 2004; Nicholson & Whyte, 1992; Robbins & Ehri, 1994; Senechal, Thomas, & Monker, 1995) and viewing videotapes (Oetting et al., 1995). It is possible that these students are less able to make use of context to infer word meanings because of limited vocabulary and content knowledge (Stahl, 1991). In response to this finding, researchers have called for more intentional, teacher-directed vocabulary instruction and intervention to complement traditional storybook reading activities for young children who are at risk for language and reading difficulties (Biemiller 2001; Penno, Wilkinson, & Moore, 2002; Stahl & Shiel, 1999). For example, Robbins and Ehri (1994) concluded that "because children with weaker vocabularies are less likely to learn new words from listening to stories than children with larger vocabularies, teachers need to provide more explicit vocabulary instruction for children with smaller vocabularies" (p. 61).
Only a limited number of studies have investigated the effectiveness of directly teaching word meanings to young children within the context of storybook reading. The most frequently evaluated instructional approach has been to provide students with embedded explanations of target words when encountered during story reading. For example, Penno et al. (2002) conducted a study in which 47 young children (mean age 6 years, 6 months) were randomly assigned to two storybook reading conditions. In the control condition, children listened to three readings of a storybook distributed over three weeks. In the treatment condition, children listened to three readings of the same storybook but also received explanations by the adult reader of target vocabulary words embedded within the context of the story. Explanations consisted of (a) using a simpler synonym, (b) role playing or acting out the word's meaning, or (c) pointing to a picture in the book that illustrated the word's meaning. At posttest, the researchers found that children in the treatment condition identified more target words in a multiple-choice test and included more target words in a retelling of the story.
These results converge with findings of other studies evaluating the effectiveness of providing simple explanations of target words in the context of storybook reading activities (Biemiller & Boote, 2005; Brett, Rothlein, & Hurley, 1996; Elley, 1989; Senechal, 1997). Taken together, these studies suggest that primary-grade students can learn the meanings of unknown words when provided with embedded definitions while listening to stories read aloud. Moreover, students are more likely to learn word meanings when teachers provide direct instruction compared to incidental exposure during read-alouds. However, although this type of vocabulary instruction is time efficient, it may not provide the level of intensity that many students at risk for disability require to gain access to the complexities of language and word meanings needed to significantly affect learning outcomes (Gersten, 1998; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000).
While introducing simple definitions is one way to explicitly teach vocabulary, an alternate approach is to provide more intensive and extended instruction in word meanings. Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2002) described extended instruction as a robust approach that "offers rich information about words and their uses, provides frequent and varied opportunities for students to think about and use words, and enhances students' language comprehension and production" (p. 2).
There is little research on extended vocabulary instruction in grades K-2; the literature on rich vocabulary instruction is more extensive in grades 3 and above (Baumann et al., 2003; National Reading Panel, 2000). Extended vocabulary instruction is characterized by explicit, conspicuous teaching that includes using both contextual and definitional information, giving multiple exposures to target words in varied contexts, and encouraging deep processing (National Reading Panel, 2000; Stahl, 1986; Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986). Activities that encourage deep processing challenge students to move beyond memorizing simple dictionary definitions to understanding words at a richer, more complex level by, for example, describing how they relate to other words and to their own experiences (McKeown & Beck, 2003). Another critical feature of extended instruction is increasing the number of encounters with target vocabulary by providing students with opportunities to interact with and discuss target words in varied contexts beyond those offered in the story.
Beck, McKeown, and their colleagues (Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown, 1982; McKeown, Beck, Omanson, & Perfetti, 1983; McKeown, Beck, Omanson, & Pople, 1985) conducted a program of research that evaluated the effectiveness of rich, extended vocabulary instruction with students in upper-elementary grades. This program provided students with definitions of words and also extended instruction by including experiences that promoted and reinforced deep processing of word meanings. Students were exposed to target words frequently within and across lessons and given opportunities to manipulate words in varied and meaningful ways. The results of these studies demonstrated that a carefully designed program of direct vocabulary instruction can have positive effects on both students' word learning and comprehension.
Extended vocabulary instruction has not been investigated systematically with young school-age children. The preliminary results of one exploratory study are promising, however. Beck and McKeown (2007) found that kindergarten and first-grade students were able to learn complex vocabulary through a rich instructional approach implemented in whole-class settings. Moreover, their findings indicated that increasing the amount of instruction (i.e., increasing instructional time and exposures to target words) resulted in substantial gains in word learning.
The growing research base which is providing encouraging evidence about the effectiveness of direct vocabulary instruction, especially extended instruction, with young children has focused almost completely on whole-class...
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