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Article Excerpt
The past decade has seen increasing research into the study of the psychological aspects of music. In particular, Rentfrow and Gosling (2003) systematically addressed some of the major questions regarding the importance of music in everyday life, including its relationship to individual differences. There have also been studies attempting to shed light on the links between music and several aspects of social behaviour (Hargreaves & North, 1997, 1999; North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1997, 2000), as well as the role of music as a constituent factor of individuals' social identity (North, Hargreaves, & O'Neill, 2000; Tarrant, North, & Hargreaves, 2000; Tekman & Hortacsu, 2002).
However, questions remain, particularly regarding the relationship between individual differences and different uses of music in everyday life, namely, whether different people listen to music in different or similar ways and why they may choose to do so (Kemp, 1996; Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003). The questions of why and how people experience music in everyday life is an important one given that music is a ubiquitous aspect of all human cultures and has been associated with broad psychological functions, in particular emotion regulation and coping. Psychologists have often emphasized the fact that music, in any of its widely different forms and contents, can evoke powerful emotional reactions in people. Thus, in one of the first published articles on individual differences and music, Myers (1922) concluded that '[N]owhere in art or nature as in music do we more keenly feel this "uplifting of the soul" as we term it' (p. 71).
In the present article, we explore several possibilities in which established personality traits and intelligence measure may be linked to different specific motives and ways in which music can be used for in everyday life.
Uses of music
Philosophers have long speculated about the functions of music and the purpose of listening to music in human beings (e.g. Hamilton & Cairns, 1996; Jourdain, 1998; Russell, 1945). According to Aristotle (350BC/1997), music was the most influential phenomenon that an audience could be affected by. Psychoanalysts, on the other hand, conceptualized music (and other artistic products) in terms of 'sublimation', that is, the transformation of sexual instincts into socially rewarded products and activities (Freud, 1922). More recent psychological and empirical studies into the uses of music suggest that individuals, in particular young people, use music for the purpose of impression-management, i.e. to create an external image to others (North, Hargreaves, & O'Neill, 2000; Tarrant et al., 2000). Thus, music may help individuals to consolidate their sense of identity by establishing in-group preference and exclusivity.
Other studies (e.g. Tekman & Hortacsu, 2002) have indicated that individuals choose to listen to music as background to other activities, mere appreciation or rhythmic accompaniment. Technological advances in digital music systems (e.g. cd, dvd and mp3 players) have made listening to music cheap and available everywhere and at all times. Today, people can listen to music while driving, cycling, studying, working or travelling by plane, train or bus. As North, Hargreaves, and Hargreaves (2004) recently noted:
... people now actively use [music] in everyday listening contexts to a much greater extent than hitherto. They are still exposed to music in shops, restaurants, and other commercial environments without active control: But they also control its use in the home, in the car, while exercising, and in other everyday environments. It might be expected that they should do this in order to achieve different psychological ends, such as creating certain mood states, or changing their levels of emotional arousal. Music can now be seen as a resource rather than merely as a commodity. (p. 42, italics in the original)
Personality, intelligence and music
Recent research has revealed important information about the relationship between individual differences and musical preferences. In fact, much more is known now about the psychology of musical preferences (for different artists, styles or genres) than uses of music in general, largely thanks to Rentfrow and Gosling's (2003) recent series of studies. In a large-scale analysis of US data, the authors found that the structure of musical preferences could be organized in terms of reflective/complex, intense/rebellious, upbeat/conventional and energetic/rhythmic compositions, and that these dimensions are not only associated with the level of complexity, emotionality and energy of musical compositions, but also individual differences in personality, ability and self-perception. This suggests that 'individuals might select styles of music that allow them to send a message to others about who they are or how they like to be seen' (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003, p. 1,251). However, Rentfrow and Gosling did not explore the extent to which different individual difference factors are likely to influence the way in which people use music, and concluded that 'a theory of music preferences should also explain how individuals make use of music. One possibility is that individuals use music as a means of regulating emotions in everyday life' (p. 1,252).
Indirectly, the associations between individual difference variables and different dimensions of musical preference indicate that personality and intelligence may partly determine the way individuals use music, that...
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