...increasing predator numbers compare the meat yield before and after the re-establishment of wolves. The production of lamb meat at the county level declined, particularly from within the forest habitat, while the moose harvest showed only localized reductions. We also consider the scale of the economic loss caused by large carnivores and discuss management options for a future with carnivores.

Key words: bioeconomics, domestic stock, extensive agriculture, large carnivore conflicts, moose meat, wildlife harvesting, wolf predation

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Unlike many parts of North America where the sale of game meat is restricted or prohibited, moose (Alces alces) meat is a valuable commodity in Scandinavia. Since the 1970s the annual Norwegian moose harvest has increased over 6-fold (Statistics Norway 2004a), due to changes in forestry practices and the introduction of a selective hunting regime (Ostgard 1987) in the near absence of large carnivores and with reduced competition from domestic cattle grazing (Ahlen 1975). The current yield is around 35,000-40,000 moose per year with an estimated economic value of US$ 40-55 M from meat alone (see also Storaas et al. 2001), making it by far the most economically important game species in Scandinavia (Mattsson 1990). At the local scale, hunting is a significant source of meat and income in rural areas, and plays an important social and cultural role. Although landowners do not legally own game animals on their land, they hold the right to hunt them and proceeds generated from hunting may form a significant part of the annual income of some large landowners. However, much of the meat is consumed privately and hunting rights are rarely sold for more than the meat value. Furthermore, as there is no well developed Scandinavian equivalent of the North American 'outfitting' business, moose hunting contributes little towards local employment. Consequently, much of the potential economic value of moose hunting is not realized.

Sheep production in Norway has also increased since the 1970s but to a lesser extent and for different reasons. Over this period, it has been government policy to support agriculture, including sheep farming, as a means of maintaining human settlements in rural Norway and stabilizing food production (Norwegian Agricultural Authority 2004, see also Zimmermann et al. 2001). The introduction of production subsidies during an era when large carnivores were virtually extinct allowed for a rise in lamb production which peaked in the early 1980s (Rogstad 2003, Statistics Norway 2004b). Changing husbandry practices also meant that lamb production became concentrated on fewer, larger farms and became less labor intensive with little shepherding (Linnell et al. 1996, Nersten et al. 2003, Rogstad 2003). In general, ewes are over-wintered and lambed indoors or in low-lying fields, due to 5-7 months of snow cover, and then released with their lambs to range freely in unenclosed forest and mountain pastures during the summer months (Drablos 1997).

The current national production of lambs is about 1.4 million per year (Statistics Norway 2004b), with a meat value of US$120M at today's prices and wool production worth approximately US$ 25 M (Rogstad 2003, Statistics Norway 2004b). However, sheep production subsidies total approximately US$ 255 M per year, with 55-70% of sheep farmers' income arising from subsidies (Nersten et al. 2003). On an international scale, sheep farming in Norway is a relatively small industry, providing about 9,000 full-time job equivalents nationwide, held on approximately 19,000 farms. Although both moose hunting and sheep farming occur throughout large parts of Norway, the main sheep farming districts are in the mountainous areas of Western Norway while moose hunting tends to be concentrated in the forested areas in the south-east and further north (Fig. 1).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Concurrent with increases in the Norwegian moose harvest and lamb production, there has been a change in attitudes towards large carnivores in Europe and North America (Linnell et al. 1996, Bjerke et al. 1998, Williams et al. 2002, Ericsson and Heberlein 2002). The Norwegian government has explicitly stated the goal to maintain sustainable, breeding populations of four large carnivore species (Miljoverndepartementet 2003-2004), following their near eradication due to human persecution over the last 150 years (Swenson et al. 1995, Wabakken et al. 2001, Vila et al. 2003). Bears (Ursus arctos) and wolves (Canis lupus) have been protected in Norway since 1973 and 1971 respectively, wolverine (Gulo gulo) since 1973 in southern Norway and 1981 in northern Norway, and lynx (Lynx lynx) since 1992 in southern Norway (Andersen et al. 2003). However, some controlled hunting of lynx and wolverine has been permitted under license since 1994. Wolf numbers began increasing in southern and central Scandinavia in 1991 and rose 10-fold during the following 10 years (Wabakken et al. 2001). After protection, the first confirmed reproduction in Norway occurred in 1997.

One element of the policy to promote carnivores has been to pay compensation to farmers who lose domestic stock to carnivores (Kaczensky 1996, Linnell and Broseth 2003). After about a century without any significant number of large carnivores, it has become common practice to graze domestic sheep on unenclosed forest and mountain pastures without shepherding...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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