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Article Excerpt
I. INTRODUCTION
Social scientists have long chronicled the impact of an individual's appearance on numerous outcomes including others' judgments of the individual's competence, amicability, intelligence, and trustworthiness. (1) As these types of judgments affect hiring decisions, promotions, performance appraisals, and other critical work outcomes, they can have a particularly profound impact on individuals in the workplace. (2) Accordingly, many people today recognize the importance of projecting a professional image at work and the role that their demeanor, clothing, and grooming play in crafting that image successfully. However, we also know from social science research that women and minorities suffer a disadvantage in crafting this professional image due to negative stereotypes, lower expectations, and workplace norms that run counter to their cultural values and that reward white male standards of behavior and appearance. (3)
Women in general and minority women in particular, encounter many obstacles to achieving their preferred professional image. Gender alone presents a double-bind for women who are making decisions about their grooming and appearance in the workplace. On one hand, the most valued characteristics in corporate settings--competitiveness, ambition, aggressiveness, and competence are typically associated with men. (4) As a result, women may not want to groom themselves in a manner that would highlight their femininity or attractiveness. (5) On the other hand, conventionally attractive women fare better professionally than less attractive women, as attractive women tend to make more money and receive more job offers and promotions. (6)
For minority women, the decision of how to groom themselves at work has an added dimension. In addition to managing the paradox of femininity and attractiveness, minority women must also negotiate the presentation of their racial identities. Minority women often feel they must compensate for both their gender and race in attempting to present a professional image that will render them credible to their co-workers. (7) Crafting a professional image entails managing perceptions through a variety of behaviors and grooming decisions. One of the most central decisions in managing perceptions involves how to style one's hair. (8) For example, Professor Rose Weitz chronicled interviews with an Asian woman who permed (curled) her hair often because she felt that she looked "too Asian" with her naturally straight hair. (9) Similarly, a Chicana woman interviewed by Weitz commented that long hair rendered a less professional appearance that highlighted her racial features. (10) In each of these examples, these minority women chose to wear their hair in a manner that downplayed their racial or ethnic identities.
Recent lawsuits document the complexities associated with grooming decisions for Black women in professional settings. In particular, several cases involving Black women show that hairstyle choices may have serious repercussions. In McManus v. MCI Communications Corp., McManus, a Black woman, argued that she was fired for wearing her hair in braids and dreadlocks and dressing in African clothing. (11) The plaintiff in Hollins v. Atlantis Co., who came to work with her hair in "finger waves" (an elaborate cropped hairstyle worn by Black women), claimed that her employer's policy prohibiting "eye catching" hairstyles was discriminatory. (12) Likewise, in Rogers v. American Airlines, Inc., a Black woman was fired for wearing her hair in braids. (13) As these cases demonstrate, "ethnic" hair styles are sometimes not welcome in the corporate world.
However, not all Black women face such explicit discrimination against their hairstyle choices. Most employers are savvy enough to avoid overtly discriminatory policies that would invite legal challenges. Instead, many obstacles arise when employers manifest subtle negative biases that are frequently associated with stereotypes about Black women. For example, it is generally understood that the right balance of femininity and attractiveness can benefit a woman in the workplace, but traditional American culture views Black women as less feminine and less attractive, (14) as well as less intelligent, competent, and dependable in their professional positions than their White counterparts. (15) Awareness of these negative perceptions causes Black women to be especially concerned about whether their hairstyles promote a professional image. (16)
In this Essay we focus on the dilemma that Black women face with regard to their hairstyle choices in the workplace. Our decision to focus primarily on Black women does not assert that one minority group is more important than another group. It does, however, acknowledge that each minority group likely faces its own obstacles and hurdles that are specific to its race, culture, and experiences. We chose to focus on Black women because of the negative stereotypes that are unique to Blacks given the historical context of segregation and inferiority in the United States; because of the preponderance of social science research that contrasts Blacks--more so than any other racial minority--to Whites in the context of prejudice, racism, and social inequality; and because of the unique texture and appearance of Black hair which in its natural kinky state is the opposite of straight hair, the Western standard of beauty. (17) In addition, we focus exclusively on Black women as opposed to Black men because the grooming expectations in many professional environments are the exact opposite for Black men when compared to Black women. The expectation of hair straightening falls solely on Black women and not on Black men. In fact, Black men are expected to wear their hair in its natural state though the expectation is for keeping it short and conservatively groomed. (18) Accordingly, the hairstyle dilemma for Black women is both uniquely racialized and gendered.
We first begin this Essay by describing the unique aspects of grooming and caring for Black textured hair, and explaining how it differs from the hair care of other races and ethnicities. Second, we draw upon social science research on intergroup relations and stereotypes to illuminate the external pressures on Black women to conform to mainstream aesthetic standards. Next, drawing from research on identity, we consider the competing psychological processes and community pressures spurring Black women to eschew traditional norms regarding hair grooming in the workplace. Finally, we discuss the implications of pressures to conform to mainstream norms for both Black women and their employers.
II. THE HAIRSTYLE DILEMMA
A. The Uniqueness of Black Hair
For most professional women, the choice of a hairstyle is restricted to length, color, cut, and style. With the exception of women in the military or other professions with regimented dress codes, grooming choices for White women are primarily based on personal preferences. Also, with the noted exception of choosing to "go blonde," the choice of hairstyle for White women is typically free from stereotypes or biases associated with incompetence or other negative characteristics. Indeed, a recent study concluded that presenting an image that was both conventionally attractive as well as professional was easier to attain for White women than for Black women. (19) Interestingly, the study noted that although some White participants viewed their hairstyle choices as professionally unimportant, none of the minority participants saw these hairstyle choices as simple and inconsequential. (20)
For Black women who work in professional...
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