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Article Excerpt
ABSTRACT
Ambivalence, broadly defined as feeling more than one emotion at a time, is thought to be a central aspect of human experience and to play an important role in a range of psychological processes. Ambivalence is experienced in close relationships, identity development, social and political attitudes, decision-making behavior, anxiety states, as well as in psychotherapeutic change. Eight undergraduate students participated in phenomenological interviews that were transcribed and served as the basis for the investigation. The primary purpose of this paper is to shed light on the meaning of the experience of ambivalence by explicating the organizational relationships of its constituent meanings. The paper will also clarify the relation of ambivalence to important psychological processes and developmental transitions during young adulthood.
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Ambivalence has been a topic of interest to philosophers, social and psychological theorists, and psychotherapists because of its relationship to important phenomena such as psychological conflict, anxiety, psychopathology, decision-making, and developmental processes. Smelser (1998) argues for the central importance of the concept of ambivalence for a nuanced understanding of the human condition. He asserts that in recent years, however, the overarching trend in the social sciences has been to focus on cognitive explanation, prediction, mastery and control of experience and behavior. This trend obscures certain aspects of experience and limits understanding of lived experience. Accordingly, this paper proposes that a phenomenological understanding of ambivalence helps account for affective and other non-rational aspects of experience and behavior overlooked or underemphasized in the predominant psychological literature.
The purpose of this paper is to suggest that understanding ambivalence is of fundamental importance for understanding human experience, to bring into focus the various facets of the experience of ambivalence, and to present a psychological interpretation of its meaning. The first portion of the paper is dedicated to demonstrating the importance of the concept of the ambivalence for understanding a wide range of human experiences and its relevance in the field of psychology. The second portion of the paper will focus on the findings of a phenomenological investigation of ambivalence as experienced in the lives of eight young adults as a way of elucidating the central meanings and boundaries of the lived experience of ambivalence during an important developmental transition. Stated differently, the primary undertaking of the investigation is to shed light on the phenomenon of ambivalence as a way of being-in-the-world. Finally, the implications of ambivalence for identity development, psychological and social functioning, and psychotherapy will be discussed.
Significance of ambivalence
In this section of the paper, examples from a range of authors in psychology, sociology, and political psychology will illustrate the relevance and significance of ambivalence in human experience. Following the discussion of abstract conceptions of ambivalence in a variety of literatures, the paper will focus more narrowly on the everyday examples of ambivalence as an introduction to the phenomenological investigation of the experiencing multiple feelings at one time.
According to Smelser (1998), contemporary models of human behavior emphasize rational choice while failing to recognize the importance of affective and other non-rational influences. Neo-classical economics descending from the British utilitarian tradition, Weber's rationality as an organizational or institutional strategy, and scientific rationality are examples of prevalent conceptions of behavior that emphasize the role of rational choice in human experience and behavior. In psychology specifically, the trend toward models emphasizing rationality is apparent in the advent of the "cognitive revolution" with the attendant success of cognitive science and information science. Within psychoanalysis, the shift in emphasis from drive theory and instinct psychology to ego psychology and object-relations theory is illustrative of "less emphasis on affect and ideology and more emphasis on the instrumental/rational perspectives ..." (Smelser, 1998, p. 2). In this view, too great an emphasis on rational perspectives risks underestimating the importance of non-rational factors in human life and on individual, group and institutional behavior.
In psychology, conceptions of ambivalence have varied from one theorist to another. Ambivalence had a prominent place in the theories of Bleuler, Freud and theorists who followed them. According to Meerloo (1979), the use of the term ambivalence in psychiatry and psychology was first introduced by Bleuler in 1908, in his work Dementia Praecox or the Group of Schizophrenias. Freud adopted the term ambivalence from Bleuler, modifying and restricting its meaning (Shapiro, 1985). Holder (1975) argued for a return to Freud's restricted use of ambivalence to refer specifically to feelings of love and hate directed at the same object. For the purposes of this investigation, however, the term ambivalence is taken initially in the broadest sense, rather than in a more narrowly defined psychoanalytic sense, so as not to prematurely restrict the horizon of inquiry. Thus "ambivalence" is taken to mean both ("ambi-") and attraction and/or aversion ("valence").
The concept of ambivalence continues to play a central role in some theory and research about close relationships and psychological development from a variety of theoretical perspectives. For example, attachment theory's tripartite classification of infant attachment styles includes the anxious-ambivalent attachment style (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978) ambivalence has remained a relevant concept since the inception of the attachment literature, and investigation of its role in the parent-child relationship has been extended to its role in adult relationships (e.g., McCarthy & Taylor, 1999; Mikulincer, 1998). Recent articles concerning ambivalence address relevant topics that range across the lifespan: ambivalent attitudes toward gender relations (Feather, 2004), in-group ambivalence (Costarelli & Palmonari, 2003), emotional expression and communication (Mongrain & Vettese, 2003), effects on attitude-behavior relationships (Conner, Sparks, Povey, James, Shepherd, & Armitage, 2002), and political attitudes and decisions (e.g., Haddock, 2003; McGraw, Hasecke, & Conger, 2003). Attention continues to be paid to ambivalence in the psychoanalytic literature as well. For example, ambivalence is considered important in making choices regarding becoming a mother (Chodorow, 2003), in mothers' relationships with their babies and toddlers (Hoffman, 2003), in the effect of the maternal relationship (Safier, 1997), and in the feelings and behaviors in mother-daughter relationships late in life (Lefkowitz & Fingerman, 2003). The role of ambivalence investigated in psychological functioning such as sexual activity (O'Sullivan & Gaines, 1998) and in specific areas of psychopathology such as eating disorders (e.g., Cockell, Geller, & Linden, 2003; Salzman, 1997) and the development of children's expectancies regarding alcohol use (Cameron, C. A., Stritzke, & Durkin, 2003).
Ways of experiencing ambivalence and ways of avoiding ambivalence also have been discussed in relation to psychopathology generally (e.g. Akhtar & Byrne, 1983; Braverman, 1987; and Meerloo, 1979). Deficits in the ability to process and integrate ambivalent feelings are associated with the development of specific types of psychopathology. For someone with an obsessive personality style, for example, ambivalence may be a predominant mode of experiencing the world. One of the advantages of remaining ambivalent involves resisting the necessity of making difficult choices which preclude being able to keep one's options open. "One of the most fundamental processes in development consists in the closing of doors ... in the progressive restriction of possible fates" (Needham, 1968). Concomitant with this approach is the obsessive oscillation between the poles of a choice to be made and the attendant anxiety associated with not choosing. Yet another resolution to the dilemma involves highlighting one valence of feelings at the expense of the contravening feelings and foreclosing the decision or dilemma. The ambivalent stance of the obsessive personality makes it difficult accept resolutions to conflicts or make choices. In contrast to the obsessive personality, individuals who rely heavily on the defense mechanism of splitting avoid experiencing ambivalence by making objects either "all good" or "all bad." Thus, gray areas are not acknowledged and conscious awareness of ambivalence is averted.
Ambivalence and psychopathology
One way to conceptualize ambivalence as it relates to psychopathology is in terms of a dimension that ranges from the experience of an overwhelming experience of ambivalence at one extreme to a failure to experience any ambivalence at the other extreme. An overwhelming degree of ambivalence involves feeling "stuck," feeling powerless and unable to make decisions and to move on with one's life. Failure to resolve ambivalence may be reflected in reliance on defense mechanisms, such as obsessiveness, characterized by an inability to make decisions. Chronic ambivalence may be associated with developmental outcomes, such as identity diffusion, which are characterized by an inability to move beyond a focus on ambivalence and make commitments.
Braverman (1987) studied the role ambivalence plays in mental health problems and describes chronic ambivalence as a disorder of the self. Ambivalence may also lead to severe problems in marriages where partners play opposite roles. Although neither individual in the marriage appears ambivalent, the overall relationship is characterized by ambivalence (Braverman, 1987). Wolf and Kutash (1985) see ambivalence as being the central feature of a condition termed "di-egophrenia." This term derives from the notion that the typical patient suffering from this disorder is thought to be suffering from a "split" ego. Such patients seem to think and act in contradictory ways, leading to intense ambivalence and marked oscillations. According to Wolf and Kutash (1985), "di-egophrenic maneuvers" are a part of normal psychological life, but these maneuvers are relied upon to a much greater extent in di-egophrenia and in severe cases, ambivalence becomes all-consuming.
Kernberg (1986) discusses the role of ambivalence in the treatment of the narcissistic character. He feels that as treatment progresses, the narcissistic character develops an intensely ambivalent and frightening transference with the therapist. Initially, narcissistic defenses protect the patient against the intensity of narcissistic rage, intense feelings of unworthiness, the frightening view of the world as devoid of nurturance and love, and against his image of him- or herself as the "... hungry wolf out to kill, eat, and survive" (p. 257). As the patient begins to rely on the therapist, he or she becomes uncertain whether the need for love will survive aggressive attacks upon the therapist. An important aspect of treatment, in Kernberg's view, is the working through...
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