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Article Excerpt
This study investigated the impact of virtual manipulatives on first grade students' academic achievement as well as on student attitudes, behaviors, and interactions.
Thirty-one (31) first grade students were randomly assigned to either a treatment or control group. Both groups studied identical objectives, but the treatment group used virtual manipulatives for practice. A pretest and posttest at both the first and second grade levels was conducted.
The pretests showed that the treatment group began lower than the control group, and at a significantly lower level (p 0.05). The treatment group had significant improvements (p < 0.05) on both grade level tests, while the control group only had significant improvements (p < 0.05) on the second grade level of testing.
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The treatment group teacher recorded her daily thoughts regarding the virtual manipulatives. She also noted her observations regarding student attitudes, behaviors, and interactions. She reported increased instructional time, repetition of practice activities, time-on-task, and feedback. She found that students showed increased motivation and challenged themselves to higher levels.
Teachers are using computer and Internet resources more frequently with their students. Seventy-six percent (76%) of teachers report using computers daily for planning and/or teaching, and 63% report using the Internet for instruction (CEOForum, 2001). The integration of computers into the daily instruction of students has become more than acceptable practice, it has come to be expected (Miller & McInerney, 1994-1995). This expectation is partially a result of the large financial and time investments made on computer systems and Internet accessibility. One estimate suggests that over $6 billion was spent in 1999-2000, and technology expenditures have tripled in K-12 schools during the last decade (Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 2000). In 2000, the average public school contained 110 computers. Instructional rooms with Internet access increased from 3% in 1994 to 77% in 2000. Nearly 98% of schools had Internet access in 2000, an increase from 35% in 1994 (CEOForum, 2001; Snyder, 2002). The increase in computer and Internet access has made web-based instruction and classroom activities a viable option for educators, and illustrates the tremendous faith that is placed on the capability of computers and Internet to improve instruction (D'Amico, 1990)
Mere faith in technology and the Internet doesn't justify the adoption of and expenditures for computer and web-based resources. A call for accountability in all areas of education has been a dominant theme in recent years. Many opinions exist regarding the effectiveness and appropriateness of technology use with young children and these are forcefully shared in a variety of venues. These opinions range from a call for a moratorium on computers in elementary classrooms (Fool's Gold: A Critical Look at Computers in Childhood [Alliance for Childhood, 2000]) to the response to that article by Thornburg (2000), who promotes the use of technology as an effective learning tool with students of all ages.
One concern regarding young children using computers is that computer environments are not concrete, asserting the belief that children construct knowledge through interaction with materials and people, and that children cannot handle the symbolic representations present in a computer environment (Barnes & Hill, 1983; Wood, Willoughby, & Specht, 1998). However, what is "concrete" to a child may have more to do with what is meaningful and manipulable than with physical characteristics. Moyer, Bolyard, and Spikell (2002) defined a virtual manipulative as "an interactive, web-based visual representation of a dynamic object that presents opportunities for constructing mathematical knowledge" (p. 373). Virtual manipulatives tend to be more than just electronic replications of their physical counterparts. They typically include additional features or options that expand on what a physical manipulative can offer. Some virtual manipulatives are able to present a representation that would not be easily made or even possible with physical manipulatives, an attribute shared with many types of computer simulations.
RELATED RESEARCH
The use of virtual manipulatives is still relatively new in the classroom, and research on their impact is limited. Reimer and Moyer (2005) described a study on third graders learning about fractions with virtual manipulatives that showed statistically significant gains in students' conceptual knowledge. They also reported that the student surveys and interviews indicated that the manipulatives provided immediate and specific feedback, were easier and faster to use than traditional methods, and enhanced students' enjoyment while learning.
Previous studies, in math and other areas, have compared the symbolic computer environment to the "concrete" environment, though not with the use of virtual manipulatives. These studies indicate that children are able to transfer symbolic learning from the computer environment to the actual environment.
The well-known Logo programming language is a prime example of an effective method for working with symbolic concepts by using an interactive computer environment. The programming involved in Logo promotes abstract thinking and returns a concrete visual picture (Allocco et al., 1992). Comparisons between Logo and non-Logo students have shown that Logo students are more effective in solving problems involving concepts and applications. They also score higher on figure classification, quantitative reasoning, and have shown a significant improvement in the achievement of geometry skills (Robinson, Feldman, & Ulhig, 1987). Computers not only enhance children's learning experiences by allowing them to visualize connections among various topics (Enderson, 1997), but can indeed facilitate their cognitive development, leading to students investigating ideas beyond grade-level expectations (Duarte, Young, & DeFranco, 2000).
In a study comparing the symbolic computer environment to the "concrete" environment, a researcher (Ainsa, 1999) used M & M's as math manipulatives to measure children's ability to accomplish a mathematical task and the use of a computer to do a similar task. The study found that 101 subjects,...
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