...(i.e., siblings, grandparents) for guidance many aspects of life (Collins, Maccoby, Steinberg, Hetherington, & Bornstein, 2000; Peterson & Hann, 1999) including leisure. Parents are one of the most significant socialization agents responsible for the leisure interests and values that their children develop (Barnett & Chick, 1986; Kelly, 1983; Kleiber, 1999). This influence that parents have during childhood continues to have an effect on an individual as an adult. For example, researchers have demonstrated that leisure interests developed at a young age are carried through into adulthood (Scott & Willits, 1989, 1998; Shannon, 2003; Sofranko & Nolan, 1972; Yoesfing & Burkhead, 1973).

Although the parent-child relationship as it relates to leisure is important, the influence of parents on children's leisure behaviour has not been widely examined. Existing research has focused mainly on the influence of parents on interests and/or activities without addressing leisure values and attitudes. Therefore, little is known about how parents influence their children's valuation of leisure, attitudes toward leisure, or understanding of the role that leisure plays in their lives. Furthering knowledge about these influences is important because values and attitudes motivate behaviour (Schwartz & Bardi, 2001) including leisure activity choices and behaviours (Ajzen & Driver, 1991; 1992).

Adolescents have considerable amounts of discretionary time with many opportunities to make leisure-related choices. A significant body of literature has been developed that identifies the leisure choices that adolescents make during their discretionary time (e.g., Eccles & Barber, 1999; Larson & Kleiber, 1993) and the outcomes that are associated with participation in various activities (e.g., Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003). The choices and outcomes exist along a continuum of positive to negative. For example, Larson (2000) identified that leisure provided adolescents with opportunities for positive self-development. At the other end of the continuum, some youth choose to engage in criminal activity during their leisure time, which can have negative effects on the community as well as lead to an adolescent's early introduction to the justice system (Robertson, 1993). Other youth, however, make choices that are perceived or judged by many adults as negative even though the activities being chosen have the potential to produce positive outcomes (Kloep & Hendry, 2003). For example, a group of young people hanging out at the mall with friends is often perceived as a problem by shoppers and business owners. Using discretionary time in this manner does, however, provide opportunities for social interaction and a sense of belonging--both of which are considered to be positive outcomes of leisure.

Understanding the range of choices and outcomes that can result from and are accessible through adolescents' leisure participation has prompted researcher interest in what influences or motivates leisure time use and leisure choices during adolescence (e.g., Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Fredricks, Alfeld-Liro, Hruda, Eccles, Patrick, & Ryan, 2002; Hutchinson, Baldwin, & Caldwell, 2003). During adolescence, peers begin to exert more influence on leisure time use and choices (Fredricks et al.; Kleiber, 1999), but parents are still significant in guiding and directing adolescent time use. Important research on parenting styles and parental disciplinary practices has provided insight into the manner in which parents influence adolescent behavior (e.g., Collins et al., 2000; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Hutchinson et al.) including the ways in which parents act and communicate with their adolescents and the effect that may result. This line of research, however, has not addressed what parents communicate or rather, how adolescents perceive the messages parents communicate. Furthering the research on parental influences is important in continuing the development of knowledge related to how parents can guide and support their children's positive and healthy leisure functioning.

This study was part of a larger research project investigating the process by which parents and peers influence adolescent leisure values, attitudes, and behaviors. The purpose of this component of the research was to focus on parents as one factor that influences how adolescents perceive the role of leisure in their lives. Because the voices or perspectives of parents have tended to dominate the understanding of parent-child leisure interaction (Freysinger, 1997), the goal was to gain and describe adolescent perspectives on what parents communicate about extracurricular and unstructured leisure participation and how this informed adolescent understanding of leisure's role in one's life.

Literature Review

Adolescent Participation in Extracurricular Activities

Researchers within leisure studies, sociology, psychology, and education have investigated the effect that participation in extracurricular activities has on different aspects of a young person's life. Participation in extracurricular activities is generally viewed as beneficial (Bartko & Eccles, 1998; Eccles & Barber, 1999; Jessor, Turbin, & Costa, 1998; Mahoney & Stattin, 2000) although the potential for negative experiences and outcomes does exist (Carr, Kennedy, Dimick, 1990; Eccles & Barber, 1999; Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003; Larson & Seepersad, 2003). The understanding that extracurricular activities are connected to positive, developmental outcomes has encouraged researchers to investigate factors that motivate adolescents' participation. Fredricks et al. (2002) interviewed 41 adolescents to understand what influenced their involvement in athletics or the arts. The researchers identified that a combination of psychological, contextual, and identity factors affected participation. Some adolescents participated because they enjoyed the activity, they were good at the particular activity, and/or because their friends were involved. They also considered the context of the activity, such as whether there was enough challenge associated with the activity and whether the benefits of participation (e.g., improving skills, accessing enjoyment) outweighed the costs (e.g., hard work, lack of time for other things).

The identification of peers as playing a significant role in influencing adolescents' motivation to participate in leisure activities is not surprising and is supported by other research. Mannell and Kleiber (1997), in their discussion on socialization influences, indicated that as children grow older, their peers come to play a greater role in influencing leisure choices and behaviors. Relationships with peers become increasingly important and peers significantly influence social activities during adolescence (Robertson & Shannon, 2002; Sebald, 1986). Peers can influence engagement in socially unacceptable or risky behaviours such as substance abuse (Allen, Donohue, Griffin, Ryan, & Turner, 2003; Borden, Donnermeyer, Scheer, 2001; Jenkins, 1996), but they also serve as valuable positive role models (Berndt, 1996; Moore & Boldero, 1991). For example, Hoff and Ellis (1992) showed that peers play a particularly influential role for both adolescent boys and girls as socialization agents for sport participation.

Fredricks et al.'s (2002) study did not discuss the role of parents in motivating or influencing adolescent extracurricular participation. Although peers were important sources of influence during adolescence, emotional ties with parents remain strong (Steinberg, 1990). Other studies recognized parents' important role and focused on how parents motivated and shaped adolescent extracurricular choices. Hultsman (1993) found parents to be a strong influencing factor in why adolescents did not join activities in which they were interested. Fletcher, Elder, and Mekos (2000) identified the behavior model set by parents and parents' explicit reinforcement of their children's interests and involvement in activities meaningfully influenced adolescents' participation in school and community extracurricular activities.

Howard and Madrigal (1990) sought to determine the role of parents and children in the decision-making process related to the purchase of recreation services. The child was perceived by parents to have some influence on the final purchase decision. Parents, however, had greater influence. Further, mothers were perceived as having the greatest influence in both the information gathering and final decision stages of the decision-making process that led to the purchase of services. The researchers concluded that it was "mom" who exercised the greatest influence over her child's involvement in organized recreation activities and, therefore, was key in shaping her child's leisure participation patterns.

Although these studies provide some insight into what influences extracurricular involvement and the role parents may play in their child's involvement in such leisure activities, little is known about the ways in which adolescents perceive the messages parents communicate about extracurricular involvement. Given the powerful influence of parents on their children's leisure, research is needed that seeks to understand how adolescents experience and react to their parents' influence related to extracurricular involvement. The first set of research questions was developed to address this need: How do adolescents perceive the role of extracurricular activities in their lives? In what ways do parents influence adolescents' understanding of the role of extracurricular activities in their lives? Are adolescents being actively encouraged by their parents to participate in extracurricular activities or are they simply being supported if they express an interest in participating?

Adolescent Participation in Unstructured Leisure

Not all youth participate in organized, extracurricular activities. Even those youth who do participate in such activities also engage in unstructured leisure. Although considerable attention has been given to structured, organized leisure experiences, scholars have also investigated adolescent experiences with unstructured activities. Adolescents identify enjoying unstructured social activities (Kleiber, Caldwell, & Shaw, 1993; Kloep & Hendry, 2003) and these activities also provide opportunities for skill and identity development (Thomson, 2000). Unfortunately, adults generally do not value adolescent behaviors that involve unstructured social activities such as "hanging out" (Kloep & Hendry) and have not provided settings and spaces for adolescents to engage in less-organized and less-regulated leisure activities (Hendry, Kloep, Glendinning, Ingebrigtsen, Espnes, & Wood, 2002; Thomson). The lack of resources (e.g., space) devoted to such activities may be connected to research evidence suggesting participation in unstructured activities does not produce the same degree of positive development outcomes as structured activities (Bartko & Eccles, 2003). Although researchers have demonstrated the value of extracurricular activities in relation to unstructured leisure pursuits, it is not clear what values and attitudes...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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