...descriptions in such exhibits while the user is navigating. Five methods for activating audio descriptions were implemented and evaluated to find the most effective. These range roughly on a passive-active continuum. With the more passive methods, an audio explanation was triggered by simple proximity to an image of interest. The more active methods involved users orienting themselves and pressing a button to start the audio. In the most elaborate method, once the visitor had pressed a trigger button, the system initiated a "tractor-beam" that animated the viewpoint to a location in front of, and facing, the image of interest before starting the audio. The results of this research suggest that the more active methods were both preferred and more effective in getting visitors to face objects of interest while audio played. The tractor-beam method was best overall and implemented in a museum exhibit.

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Modern computer technology has made possible 3D interactive public kiosks that provide the user with a multi-media rich environment that may include text, graphics, images, sound-clips, video, and animations. Often these environments allow the user to interactively select content and navigate through the 3D space to retrieve information, however, the navigation task may distract the user from this information. Ideally, the user should enjoy the benefits of these kiosks without sacrificing the ability to acquire the information they contain. Developing these types of interactive environments is a complex task due to the specific requirements of kiosks. They should be exceptionally easy to use, as they must be proficiently operated within a few minutes; they should be self-explanatory, as there are no human helpers to interact with; and they should engage users with interesting content, so their experience will be a memorable one.

This article is concerned with the particular problems associated with 3D interactive public kiosks; in particular, effectively linking visual 3D images with recorded spoken descriptions while navigating. Multimedia, cognitive, and learning theories suggest that the cognitive load placed on users by aspects of the kiosk, those not needed for learning the educational content, should be minimized (Schaller & Allison-Bunnell, 2003; Travis, Watson, & Atyeo, 1994). This requires finding an appropriate method for activating audio descriptions that is simple to learn and use.

This research also had a practical goal. By obtaining a contract from the New Hampshire Seacoast Science Center, it was possible to design and build the interface for a 3D kiosk; with the intent to inform the public about aspects of the marine environment. The Seacoast Science Center preferred it to be a stereoscopic computer display with a fly-through interface, and wanted the main content to consist of video and still images distributed through the 3D environment. The challenge was to develop a technique enabling users to, on their own, make audio-visual connections easily, quickly, and naturally, without hindering their ability to navigate around the virtual environment.

LITERATURE REVIEW

There are many areas of prior research relevant to issues dealing with 3D virtual kiosks. Some of these include cognitive theories of how people learn, and theories that have been developed to account for why multimedia presentations can be more effective. In addition, there are studies of how to control the user's attention; studies relating to the best way of connecting images with audio while navigating; and studies of whether active learning environments are better than passive learning environments. It is also important to look at museum environments that are currently in use. A discussion of these is in the following sections.

Cognitive Issues

Learning involves storing information in memory so that it can later be retrieved. There are numerous temporary demands placed on a user of a computer system that incorporates novel interfaces and environments (such as 3-D virtual worlds), which may make learning the interface and the content more difficult (Hitch, 1987). The user's main goal may be to explore the virtual world, but they will also have to remember many subgoals that lead to the accomplishment of the main goal, such as obtaining informational content at specific locations, and navigating to those locations. The user must also keep track of his/her current location within the virtual world along with what actions caused which responses by the system. Moreover, the user must remember the meaning of the current state of the computer. For example, if the computer is in an introduction mode, then the user may not be allowed to navigate freely until the computer switches to the journey mode (Hitch).

Central to modern cognitive theory is the concept of working memory. Working memory is a limited temporary store of information used during cognitive processes (Baddeley, 1986). Abundant evidence shows that working memory is not a unitary structure, but has separate components for visual information and verbal information (a phonological loop). Some theorists also propose an additional executive buffer storing instructions on operations to execute. The central executive is very active, being responsible for storing information regarding the current active goals; the intermediate results of cognitive processes; and expected inputs from sequential actions. The kind of information processed (visual or verbal) determines where it is stored (in the sketchpad or the phonological loop, respectively).

Visual and verbal working memory supports two generally independent processing channels, one visual and the other verbal. This is called dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1986; Clark & Paivio, 1991). Verbal stimuli are processed through the auditory channel and the associated information from speech is passed to the verbal system for coding. Visual stimulus is processed through the visual channel and the information from any images is passed to the nonverbal system for coding. However, visual text is processed in the visual channel but coded in the verbal system.

Multimedia Theory

Multimedia theory uses dual coding theory as a foundation (Mayer & Anderson, 1992). The central claim is that presenting information using more that one sensory modality will result in better learning. For example, if a student sees a picture of a dog with the label "dog" below it, the student will process the picture in the visual channel and temporarily store it in visual working memory. The label "dog" will likewise be processed in the visual channel but then it will be passed into the verbal channel for encoding in the verbal system of working memory. An internal link will connect the picture of the dog and the label "dog," which will strengthen the encoding between them. A picture with words excites both the verbal and the visual processing systems whereas spoken (or written) words alone only excite the verbal system. The belief is that this dual excitement (or dual coding) is more effective than excitement of a single system. If learners can construct linked visual and verbal modals of mental representations, they learn the material better (Mayer & Sims, 1994; Mayer & Moreno, 1998a).

Mayer and Moreno (1998b) proposed that five active cognitive processes are involved in learning from multimedia presentations: (a) selecting words, (b) selecting images, (c) organizing words, (d) organizing images, and (e) integrating words and images. This has become known as the Select, Organize, and Integrate (SOI) model. Selecting words and images equates to building mental representations in verbal and...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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