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...which females thwart attacks endangered males. Later, Zipporah's father confessed faith in Moses' God and ate meal with Israel in the presence of God. Zipporah and her father represent a household that originated outside of Israel's ideological boundaries, but became positively allied to Israel through marriage, circumcision, confession, and sacrifice. This and similar stories suggest that, among those who selected and shaped the narratives of the Tanakh, there was considerable and persuasive dissent from what has often been assumed to be the dominant position in Second Temple Judaism.
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[2] Recently several scholars have applied modern theories of ethnicity to post-exilic Jewish history, connecting the formation of the Jewish Scriptures to the identity crises brought by exile and resettlement in the Babylonian and Persian periods. Some emphasize the concern exhibited in these texts with Israel's religious identity and the distinctions between Israel and other peoples. (1) Others seek to link certain biblical narratives to the economic and property issues resulting from exile resettlement and Persian policies and politics. (2) I am interested in the relevance of wife-taking traditions throughout the Hebrew Bible to the social tensions over identity formation and ethnicity construction among the Jews who processed these traditions and produced a set of scriptures. I maintain that diverse wife-taking stories found across the range of Torah, Prophets, and Writings are best explained, not by positing stages in the development of marriage customs over the range of Israel's history, but rather as representative of distinct perspectives on exogamy among the scribes who redacted them. (3) I am arguing that narratives and law codes in the Pentateuch reflect contrasting perspectives on exogamy that may be explained, at least in part, by the conflicts over suitable marriage alliances among the inhabitants of Persian Yehud. (4)
[3] Some Torah narratives imply that to marry within certain defined groups is to preserve the community's religious vitality and ethnic identity--defined as mutually informing. Other texts, in contrast, demonstrate that sentiments and prohibitions against "foreigners" must be set aside because the new Israel is a religious community. These texts affirm that outsiders contributed to the establishment of Israel. The conspicuous presence of tensions concerning the provenance and ethnicity of wives for Israelite men in the Bible and subsequent Jewish literature signifies the continuing importance of this issue for the authors and their communities. (5)
[4] The Exodus account of Moses' Midianite wife illustrates how this and similar traditions about outsider wives were useful against those who claimed that only golah (exiled) Jews--male and female--and their offspring were Israel, the holy seed. The protagonists in the book of Ezra (Shecaniah and Ezra) contended that unions of male golah Jews with women originating inside the land produced mixed, polluted offspring who must be expelled from the golah congregation, sent outside of the boundaries the authors of Ezra constructed around Israel. However, the stories of Zipporah--and other outsider wives or mothers such as Tamar, Asenath, the Cushite, and Ruth--indicate otherwise. These narratives show that foreign wives were essential to the formation, preservation, and deliverance of the people, Israel. I will begin by outlining briefly some of the most apparent tensions in the Torah narratives, then move to the story of Moses' wife, Zipporah.
The Tensions
[5] According to the narratives of Genesis, Abraham was both endogamous and exogamous. At the outset of his story, he is married to Sarah, whom he called a half-sister. (6) At Sarah's urging, he agreed to take Hagar--an Egyptian slave--as a second wife to bear his first son (Ishmael). Significantly, Abraham does not oppose Sarah's proposal to take a "foreign" slave as a second wife (Genesis 16:3), and this position is not criticized by the narrator. After Sarah died, he also fathered sons through Keturah--whose origin is not mentioned in the biblical text. (7) There is no explicit indication that Sarah's kinship with Abraham as a Terahide is the reason the covenant son must be born by her, nor is there any suggestion that Ishmael and the sons of Keturah were expelled because of their "outsider" status through their mothers. (8) Nevertheless, all of these other sons were sent away (shalah) from Isaac, the son of Sarah, Abraham's first wife. Ishmael became the father of a nation of twelve princes (Genesis 21:13, 18; 25:16) and buried his father together with Isaac; the sons of Keturah were sent eastward.
[6] Isaac and Jacob were compelled by their parents to avoid the neighbor girls and marry endogamously--within the Haran/Aram clan. Nevertheless, no narrative in Genesis recounts Jacob's interest in finding wives among the kin for his sons. (9) Several (at the least) married or produced children with outsiders. Genesis 34 describes the capture of the Hivite women and children by the sons of Jacob as booty after Simeon and Levi had circumcised and killed all the men to avenge Shechem's rape of Dinah (Genesis 34:29). Any censure of Simeon, Levi, and the pillaging brothers was directed toward their violence and potential incitement of the many against the few (Genesis 34:30; 49:5-7), not against taking the Hivite women as captives or having intercourse and progeny with them. (10)
[7] Both Joseph and Judah found wives in the lands of their exile after Joseph was sold into slavery in Egypt. Judah married a Canaanite, and Genesis 38 tells in some ironic detail how he happened to impregnate Tamar. Tamar is clearly not a relative of Judah or his family; therefore, she is most likely construed as a Canaanite of the land within the world of the story, although early interpreters chose to construct her as more of an insider. Tamar's son Perez led the lineage of Judah. (11)
[8] Joseph married Asenath, the daughter of an Egyptian priest. Their union produced Ephraim and Manasseh who were adopted as sons by Israel and fathered the Joseph tribes (Genesis 41:50-52; 48:8-22). These cases of exogamy and exogamous progeny are not marginal, since the later tribes and kingdoms of Judah and Israel are both at stake. (12)
[9] Notice that insider women, the sister/cousin-wives, were always barren until the LORD opened their wombs. This includes Leah--the LORD intervened on her behalf, when he saw that "she was unloved" (Genesis 29:21-27). Barrenness was never...
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