...program aimed to build mathematical confidence, skills, and conceptual understanding by integrating mathematics and social science research in a single-sex, technology-rich environment supported by university student mentors. The program targeted seventh-grade urban girls from public and private schools. Participants met over the course of ten Saturdays to learn research methods, computer skills, mathematics, and descriptive statistics. Quantitative data from the girls indicate that participants demonstrated greater confidence in their mathematics ability and increased mathematics achievement after the program. Qualitative data confirmed these findings and supported the contention that multiple factors play a role in fostering girls' interest in studying mathematics and science.

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Research on gender and ethnic bias chronicles declines in American students' attitudes toward and achievement in mathematics and science, both from the 1960s to the present and from the early grades to high school (Eccles, 1997; Riley, 1997). Indeed, the drop in achievement and interest from the early grades to high school is greater for female and minority students than for other students. This is particularly troublesome given research showing that students' subjective task-values of subject matter influence achievement-related behaviors such as performance and course selection (Eccles et al., 1983). While various researchers have shown that interest and achievement in mathematics and science are comparable before middle school (Brush, 1979; Gilbert, 1996), by eighth grade there are differences by sex and ethnicity for interest in, achievement in, and aspirations for fields that depend on mathematics (Bae, Smith, Pratt, & National Center for Education Statistics, 1997; Campbell, 1995).

Differential interest in mathematics between male and female students is found among students participating in science, mathematics, and engineering summer camps (J. D. Lee, 1998). By high school, girls and minority students, to a much greater extent than boys and White students, self-select out of higher-level, "academic track" mathematics and science courses such as calculus and chemistry (Clewell, Anderson, & Thorpe, 1992). Gender gaps and ethnic differences also persist through high school on "high stakes" tests such as the SAT and statewide achievement tests. Many African American, Latino, and Native American girls consistently score below many White girls (College Board Online, 1997). To narrow these gaps and ensure success for all students, interventions need to reach and encourage girls, especially those from ethnic minority backgrounds, before they enter high school.

Gender Gaps in Mathematics and Science

The increased demand for sophisticated technological skills in the workplace underscores the importance of educating all students to high levels of scientific, mathematical, and technological literacy, yet women continue to be underrepresented in mathematics, science, and engineering careers in the United States. The National Science Foundation issued a report in 2000 that examined participatory changes in these fields, using the most recent data available (from 1997). That year, while females comprised 46% of the total U.S. labor force, only 22.8% of all scientists and engineers were women. Further, within these fields, women were concentrated in the life and social sciences, with females comprising 63% of all psychologists and 42% of biologists, compared with 10% of physicists and astronomers and 9% of engineers (National Science Foundation, 2000).

Gender differences in participation and performance also exist at the undergraduate level (Hill, 2002). Interestingly, the differential participation occurs despite similar course-taking patterns in high school for many higher-level mathematics and science courses, such as calculus and chemistry (National Science Board, 2003). Although some might argue that the gender gap is relatively small, the differences in the average SAT-M scores of Talent Search boys and girls translate into sex differences in the composition of the accelerated summer courses, which indicates that proportionately fewer girls qualify as the cutoff rises (Rebhorn & Miles, 1999).

Some researchers have concluded that differential performance on high-stakes tests despite similar course-taking might suggest differences in ability to do abstract mathematics. However, other research findings suggest that factors such as the instructional approach (Hoffmann & Haussler, 1998), parents' and teachers' expectations of females versus males (Eccles et al., 1983; Gavin & Reis, 2003), and personal belief systems (e.g., confidence, attribution style, belief in usefulness of mathematics) contribute to these differences (Fennema, 1996; Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). Whatever factors may operate, it is clear that the majority of the students who enter postsecondary education will be required to study college-level mathematics, with mathematics as a discipline serving as a "filter" to success regardless of choice of college major (National Research Council, 1989).

The middle school years are particularly important for addressing gender differences in interest and confidence for mathematics and science. For girls the drops in these areas occur before actual academic grades or achievement test scores decline. For this reason, our project focuses on these school years. Seventh-grade girls firmly located in middle school are situated at a critical developmental stage with respect to their biological maturation. Additionally, these girls often experience significant changes with respect to their social roles in the family and with peers.

Intervention Domains

Role models and mentors. Over the years, the lack of women...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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