...(GHQ-28), Partners were hypothesised to demonstrate patterns of psychological adjustment similar to the officers, Based on PCL scores, nearly one third of the officers and almost 14% of the partners demonstrated PTSD, Consistent with hypotheses, regression analyses identified that, after controlling for partners' prior trauma exposure, characteristics of officer psychological adjustment--particularly avoidance-numbing symptoms--were significant predictors of poorer psychological adjustment in their partners. Theoretical explanations for such associations are discussed, especially with reference to the theories for the systemic effects of trauma, and suggestions for further research are proposed.

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Research indicates that, when family member endures a traumatic event of sufficient magnitude to provoke a posttraumatic stress reaction, relatives often experience increased distress. Findings suggest that it is PTSD, and specifically the psychological and behavioural disturbances typical of this disorder, in the trauma survivor that contribute to psychological distress among intimate partners of trauma victims. Most research in this field has focused on the wives and partners of veterans, particularly the Vietnam veteran cohort (Carroll, Rueger, Foy, & Donahoe, 1985; Lyons, 2001; Lyons & Root, 2001; Verbosky & Ryan, 1988; Westerink & Giarratano, 1999; Wilson & Kurtz, 1997). Some studies have also described the experiences of Israeli veterans of the 1982 Lebanon war and their partners (Mikulincer, Florian, & Solomon, 1995; Solomon et al., 1992; Waysman, Mikulincer, Solomon, & Weisenberg, 1993). Other investigations with civilians traumatised from exposure to World War II, the Holocaust, or more recent European conflicts provide further evidence of the negative effects of war on spouses of trauma survivors (Cook, Riggs, Thompson, Coyne, & Sheikh, 2004; Lev-Wiesel & Amir, 2001; Spasojevic, Heifer, & Snyder, 2000).

The experience and perspective of the wives of Vietnam veterans have highlighted the magnitude of the systemic effects of trauma, with clinical and empirical reports of these women demonstrating anxiety, irritability, depression, anger, sleep deprivation, emotional withdrawal, and traumatic stress symptoms have been associated with distress for partners. Hyperarousal symptoms have increased the risk for veterans in the United States perpetrating physical, verbal, and psychological aggression against their female partners (Jordan et al., 1992; Riggs et al., 1998; Savarese, Suvak, King, & King, 2001). Avoidance-numbing symptoms--specifically emotional numbing--have been shown to predominate in the relationship difficulties of PTSD-veteran couples (Riggs et al., 1998). PTSD in a partner has been shown to predict marital distress more so than the individual's own PTSD symptoms (Spasojevic et al., 2000). Apart from the direct negative impact of the PTSD symptoms of irritability, avoidance, and detachment, traumatic memories can disrupt attachment and interpersonal relationships (McFarlane & Booldess, 2001). Features of the traumatic experience can become embedded in the memory structure, causing increasing recoil from interpersonal triggers, producing detachment from the most significant and potentially supportive intimate relationship.

Several models have been posited to explain findings in which people close to trauma survivors demonstrate symptoms, behaviours, or changes that imply that they also have been affected by the trauma. Secondary traumatic stress refers to a pattern of symptoms that often mimics the experience of the trauma survivors and is conceived in terms of the diagnostic criteria of PTSD (1995). Vicarious traumatisation is a construct that encompasses the broader effects of changes to the cognitive schemata of a person or their behavioural style (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995). Hence, anyone who engages empathically with trauma survivors can experience vicarious traumatisation. Caregiver burden is another construct applied less frequently to explain the deleterious effects for spouses living with veterans who demonstrate war-induced psychiatric disorders (Ben Arzi, Solomon, & Dekel, 2000; Calhoun, Beckham, & Bosworth, 2002; Lyons & Root, 2001).

Literature in this field has tended to focus on war veterans and their families. However, members of other occupational groups such as police officers face violent or life-threatening situations on a regular, if not...

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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