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Article Excerpt
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, increasing numbers of women began to study orchestral instruments and to move from the home sphere of private music making to performing in public. Yet despite their increasing numbers, professional performance was still largely done by men. Women were barred from symphony work for many reasons. In addition to the general resistance women faced in working outside the home, women were perceived as lacking the physical strength required for playing instruments other than the piano, or lacking the stamina to withstand lengthy orchestra rehearsals. A woman's constitution was perceived as "frail" and she might wither under the tyrannous glare of the conductor. Many instruments--such as the double bass, winds, brass, and percussion--were deemed inappropriate for a woman, not only because of the physical exertion they required, but also because a woman might look less than ladylike while performing. (1)
Women responded to this exclusion and lack of opportunity by playing in all-female ensembles. The earliest of these were small groups that played in cafes and in vaudeville theaters. Full-scale all-female orchestras with permanent residency in cities began to appear in the 1890s, and were prevalent by the 1920s. Nearly every large city had at least one all-women orchestra, and by the 1930s, there were nearly thirty all-women orchestras across the United States. (2) The first group of full symphonic size was the Los Angeles Woman's Orchestra, founded in 1893. Musical America wrote of the group in 1907:
The orchestra is one of the important features of musical development in the city. It is open alike to professionals and amateurs. The girl who may be playing in concerts and cafe orchestras can obtain by membership a learning that she could in no other way have. The amateur can get professional training and a familiarity with the best orchestral compositions. (3)
"SEEKING TO OVERCOME THE HANDICAP OF BEING BARRED FROM ESTABLISHED ORCHESTRAS"
The Woman's Symphony Orchestra of Chicago was part of this trend, and was one of the most enduring and long-lasting women's orchestra. It was preceded by the similarly named Chicago Woman's Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1924 and conducted by Elena Moneak. Moneak was a violinist and conductor at one of the theater orchestras in Chicago, and formed the orchestra to create opportunities for women to play "under dignified circumstances." (4) This group gave its first concert in 1924, and was in existence for four years, until its final concert at the Chicago Woman's World's Fair in 1928.
The Woman's Symphony Orchestra of Chicago (see fig. 1) was begun in 1925 when three musicians approached Richard Czerwonky, the conductor of the Bush Conservatory orchestra, to lead an orchestra made up of women. Lacking opportunities for orchestral performance, Lillian Poenisch (clarinetist), Adeline Schmidt (flutist), and Lois Bichl (cellist) organized the Woman's Symphony Orchestra of Chicago in order to "overcome the handicap of being barred from established orchestras because of their sex." (5) The three women were in the original orchestra conducted by Moneak, but were disappointed with the amateur nature of that group. They were looking for a "commercial venture," (6) a professional experience. As a result, they broke away from the newly formed orchestra to form their own group.
Lillian Poenisch, one of the three founders of the Woman's Symphony Orchestra of Chicago, came from a background of theater and vaudeville playing, which no doubt gave her a certain determination and tenacity. At the age of thirteen Poenisch joined a vaudeville company with her mother and brother that was touring Arkansas. She states:
The women musicians of yesterday were hardly more or less than "show people," with cafe playing and vaudeville heading the list of their activities. Their education consisted of little more than grade school, if that, probably never continuing through a school semester consistently. They were taught by their parents, and to avoid trouble with the child labor authorities they were always "sixteen." (7)
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Poenisch began playing on the Chautauqua circuit as a teenager, and by age eighteen she was managing a company. After a Chautauqua season of sixteen weeks of one-night engagements, however, she vowed never to travel again. She moved to Chicago, attracted by what was a new fad in the 1920s--all-women orchestras that were playing in theaters. The theater orchestra that Poenisch played in was actually a mixed group of men and women, where she met Eleana Moneak and Lois Bichl. (8) There were other good musicians in the group, which inspired her to reach a new level of playing. She writes:
Thus you can see that this orchestra was above the ordinary in musicianship, making me feel very inferior. So, to repair the damage of seven years on the road, I studied and practiced feverishly for five hours a day besides the four hours of theater work. (9)
She also played principal clarinet in the orchestra of the Bush Conservatory for additional experience.
After she played for four years in the movie theaters, the union declared all theaters must use union orchestras, and pay a scale of $52 per week, "upon which ruling, the manager informed us that if they had to pay that price they would use men and have good orchestras." (10) Suddenly the women musicians had no work. Poenisch attributes this unfairness as the impetus for forming an all-women orchestra:
In the face of injustice one is often spurred to action. Thus, Lois Colburn, Adeline Schmidt (a former theatre flutist) and I formed the Woman's Symphony Orchestra. No longer content to accept the meager musical possibilities offered to women at that time, we put all we had into that orchestra. It is true that we had no encouragement from clubs and very little from individuals for a while, for had we not come from the wrong side of the tracks in the musical and social world?... With the help of wonderful women the orchestra has become truly a woman's orchestra--every woman's. (11)
The newly formed orchestra rehearsed once a week for six months, then in May of 1926 they gave their first concert at the Goodman Theater with encouraging reviews. (12) In the 1927-28 season they presented six concerts at the Goodman Theater.
One of the chief aims of the orchestra members was that the group should become an all-women ensemble. In the first several seasons, men were hired to play instruments that were difficult to find women players for, such as the double bass, horn, trumpet, trombone, and bassoon. A scholarship program was established to encourage women who already played a string instrument to learn a woodwind or brass instrument in order to fill out the orchestra with women. (13) Lillian Poenisch explained in an interview with the Musical Courier:
I hope the Woman's Orchestra will be an incentive to young women musicians everywhere to study the more unusual orchestra instruments. There is always a demand for players of my own instrument--the clarinet, also the flute, the French horn, the trombone, the trumpet, especially the oboe. More women are taking up the tympani than formerly.... There is many a mediocre player of the violin who may have a wonderful embochure [sic]--that indispensable poise and control of tone at the lip that makes a brilliant player of wood-wind or brass. (14)
"A WOMAN'S ORCHESTRA SHOULD BE DIRECTED BY A WOMAN"
To make the orchestra entirely female, the organizers felt it was important to have a woman conductor. Richard Czerwonky, the group's first conductor, made it clear that he was only helping the orchestra get on its feet until it could find a qualified woman to conduct. (15) The orchestra moved closer to its objective of an entirely female ensemble when Ethel Leginska, the noted pianist, conductor and composer, guest conducted the final concert of the first season (see fig. 2). Leginska's fame brought needed attention to the young orchestra, and also showed the public its serious artistic goals. The Musical Courier described her as the "only woman orchestral director to command international attention," and added that "the prestige of this great woman conductor lends intense interest to her Chicago appearance." (16) Leginska's debut concert featured Weber's Euryanthe Overture, the Mozart A-Major Piano Concerto, with Leginska conducting from the piano, and Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. The concert received enthusiastic reviews, with great praise for the conductor and orchestra. The Musical Courier praised the orchestra, and alluded to why the orchestra should be entirely female:
Nevertheless, a woman's orchestra should be directed by a woman, and it should be made up solely of women. Chicago does not need any other orchestra, it has the famous Chicago Symphony which fills the bill. But Chicago wants a woman's orchestra--one that will not compete with the Chicago Symphony but one that will bring out many novelties by American composers, novelties that could not be given by the Chicago Symphony. (17)
By having an entirely female ensemble, including the conductor, the orchestra was a separate entity, and posed no threat to the current musical establishment. No men could complain that their jobs were being taken away. Also, by playing repertoire slightly different than that offered by the Chicago Symphony, the women's orchestra was filling a gap in concert life. In an economic sense, however, this was a disaster for the women. Without being competitive with the major music establishments of the city, they continually struggled financially. On the other hand, the orchestra gained a certain amount of freedom in programming, and a freedom to meet one of its major objectives, and that was to train women musicians. The founders of the orchestra had a dream to become the best women's orchestra in the country, but unable to compete with other musical establishments, it was very difficult to realize this goal.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
In the second season, Leginska conducted four of the six subscription concerts at the Goodman. She led the orchestra in her own composition, Six Nursery Rhymes for soprano and small orchestra, as well as her Triptich for Eleven Instruments, in addition to works from the major orchestral repertoire. The local press continued its support of her, yet some reviewers expressed ambivalence regarding her leadership of the Chicago group. One reviewer wrote "Ethel Leginska is succeeding in bringing the Woman's Symphony Orchestra into a large place--the place where it belongs--and she is evidently going to fit there permanently, which is still another matter." (18) Vague unease from critics was a typical reaction. Many people were still not comfortable with seeing a woman lead an orchestra, regardless of whether it was an orchestra of women or men.
Leginska did not become the permanent conductor, perhaps due to her schedule with the Boston Woman's Symphony, a group she conducted and toured with extensively from 1927 to 1930. One article mentions that Leginska was conducting the Chicago women for "next to nothing," which may have also been a factor. Regardless, she brought the group together musically, plus brought them a certain notoriety that a new ensemble would have needed.
"ENTIRELY A PRODUCT OF AMERICAN MUSICAL TRAINING"
The fourth season ushered in a new era of stability and growth with Ebba Sundstrom's appointment as principal conductor in 1929. Sundstrom was the concertmaster of the orchestra and assistant conductor since its inception. In all likelihood, this meant that she led the orchestra in its weekly rehearsals until Ethel Leginska or a guest conductor arrived to rehearse the orchestra. While Sundstrom did not have the reputation that Leginska did, there were obvious benefits to having the conductor who rehearsed the orchestra every week conduct the concerts. Sundstrom was born in Lindsborg, Kansas, lived in Minneapolis, and made her debut as a violinist in 1921. The orchestra was proud of having an American-born conductor; in the sixth season program of 1931, her biography begins "Ebba Sundstrom is entirely a product of American musical training."
Programming of American compositions and works by women composers was a priority of the orchestra during the late 1920s and early 1930s (the appendix to this article presents a complete repertoire list for the orchestra). Ethel Leginska conducted two of her own pieces, the Canadian-American Gena Branscombe guest-conducted the orchestra in January of 1930, performing her own works on the second half of the program. Amy Marcy Beach was in attendance for a performance of her Gaelic Symphony in 1929, and works by Eleanor Everest Freer (1931), Germaine Tailleferre (1929), and Chicago composers Theodora Troendle (1927) and Hazel Felman (1934) were performed. Chicago composer Radie Britain's works were performed on two occasions, the first in 1928 when the orchestra premiered her Symphonic Intermezzo and again in 1938 when the orchestra performed Light, a piece that won national awards.
American composers were also programmed throughout the twenty years that the orchestra played. In addition to the above-mentioned American women, the orchestra played works by Edward MacDowell, George Whitefield Chadwick, Henry Dike Sleeper, Charles Sanford Skilton, Henry Hadley, Virgil Thomson, George Gershwin, and Walter Piston, giving the Chicago premiere of the suite from his ballet The Incredible Flutist. Other Chicago premieres included the Ravel Piano Concerto in G major, and works by Dmitry Kabelevsky, Karol Rathaus, and Karol Szymanowski. Gena Branscombe and Ethel Leginska took the opportunity to conduct their own compositions, as did Richard Czerwonky, Jerzy Bojanowsky, and Rudolf Ganz.
In keeping with its mission of training women for careers in orchestra performance, the orchestra programmed large works that a major orchestra would typically be playing, and from the beginning challenging works were learned. In addition to overtures by Wagner and the symphonies of Brahms, Beethoven, Tchaikovsky, and Franck, the orchestra played works such as Strauss's Death and Transfiguration and Shostakovich's Symphony no. 5. (19)
During Ebba Sundstrom's tenure as conductor, from 1929 to 1938, the Chicago press was supportive of her efforts and of the orchestra in general. In reviewing the orchestra, Eugene Stinson wrote that she
has a flair for the orchestra.... The musical value of the concert far outweighed the comparatively few technical lapses, and it was evident that the orchestra is capable of giving genuine pleasure, in performances of which any city might be proud. (20)
In a concert led by guest conductor Max Bendix in 1930, however, Stinson's review showed his preference for a male leading the group:
It is not so much a question of artistic electrons, perhaps, though there must be some psychological reaction among the ladies of the orchestra when a gentleman with a strong will rises before them and gives them a stern but emotional glance at every surging phrase.... It is more that Mr. Bendix is an experienced conductor with a firm disciplinarian streak in him. (21)
For its seventh season of subscription concerts, the orchestra changed venues, moving from the Goodman Theater to the Drake Hotel. This proved to be a popular move. Concerts were held on Sunday afternoons at five o'clock, and a dinner was served afterwards. Attendance for these events was high, with a thousand audience members. One article approved of this "very continental" arrangement, remarking on the "astonishing progress" made by the orchestra.
FAME AND NOTORIETY
In addition to concerts on the regular subscription series, the orchestra began giving extra concerts, particularly during the summer months. A yearly event was the Hull House Benefit in the spring, where Hull House Music School students would play concertos with the orchestra. (22) In the summer of 1933 the orchestra performed for the Chicago Spring Music Festival, the Rotary International Anniversary, and Illinois Day. (23) In the summer of 1934, the orchestra performed during the Century of Progress Fair. They played the dedication concert of the Ford Symphony Gardens, a new orchestra pavilion on the grounds of the World's Fair. A large number of people heard this performance, one reviewer estimating that twelve thousand people heard the Woman's Symphony perform. (24) The concert reached many people who might not normally hear a symphony orchestra, and one critic commented that the Woman's Symphony Orchestra's performance at the fair "will have lasting cultural influence." (25) (For two weeks following the dedication concert the orchestra gave twice-daily performances.) Since the concert was broadcast over the radio, the musicians were even paid the wage required by the musicians' union. The Chicago Herald and Examiner commented on this, saying the orchestra
served the muse with unnumbered unpaid rehearsals, and with seven seasons of concerts from which they derived little income. If now they have come into their just reward the informed listener can only agree that it is high time. (26)
The group's popularity, particularly for summer outdoor concerts, culminated in the Grant Park Symphony Concerts, which continue today as the Grant Park Music Festival. The Woman's Symphony was one of many groups that played these series of free concerts in Grant Park. Approximately sixty concerts were given during the months of July and August. In 1935 the Woman's Symphony played eight orchestra concerts at Grant Park, plus three concerts with the Chicago Symphony and Civic Opera Orchestra, led by Frederick Stock, conductor of the Chicago Symphony. Interestingly, the Grant Park concerts...
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