...& Anderson, 1994; Hosp & Reschly, 2002, 2003; Ladner & Hammons, 2001; Losen & Orfield, 2002; National Research Council, NRC, 2002; Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999; Parrish, 2002). Recent national data from the NRC indicate that when compared to European American students, African American students are overrepresented in the categories of mental retardation (MR), emotional disturbance (ED), and multiple disabilities; that American Indian/Alaskan Native students are overrepresented in the category of learning disabilities (LD); and that Asian/Pacific Islander and African American students have slightly higher rates of identification in autism spectrum disorders. Parrish reported that African American students are the most overrepresented group in special education programs in nearly every state, and that disproportionate representation is most pronounced in MR and ED: African American students are 2.88 times more likely than European American students to be labeled as MR and 1.92 times more likely to be identified as ED.

In contrast, far less attention has been paid to disparate representation in educational environments that are more or less restrictive; only a handful of studies have explored disproportionality across educational environments (Fierros & Conroy, 2002; Hosp & Reschly, 2002; Skiba, Wu, Kohler, Chung, & Simmons, 2001). The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA 2004) mandates that students with disabilities be served in the least restrictive environment (LRE) that is appropriate for their needs; disproportionality in access to LRE may be more important conceptually than disparities in disability category. The purpose of this study was to explore the disproportionate placement of African American students in more or less restrictive educational environments, and in particular to test the hypothesis that such disparities are due to the influence of certain disability categories.

SERVICE IN THE GENERAL EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT

Over the past 20 years, the field of special education has seen a significant shift in the location of special education service. Seminal works in the 1980s by leaders in the field called for increased service of students in general education settings (Reynolds, Wang, & Walberg, 1987; Will, 1986); and the field has moved increasingly to meet that goal. Currently, IDEA 2004 requires that

to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities ... are educated with children who are not disabled; and special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only when the nature or severity of the disability of a child is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily. (612(a)(5)(A))

Service of students with disabilities in general education settings has increased substantially in the last 15 years. In 1999-2000, 95.9% of students with disabilities were served in general school buildings; of those students, 47.3% were served outside of the general classroom for less than 21% of the school day (McLeskey, Henry, & Axelrod, 1999). The Office of Special Education Program's IDEA Report to Congress (OSEP, 2002) documents a fairly dramatic increase in special education service in general education classrooms: Between the 1990-1991 and 1999-2000 school years, the number of students served outside of the general classroom setting for less than 21% of the day increased 87.1%, while the number of students served in public separate facilities decreased 15.3%.

Both research outcomes and expert opinion appear to be mixed regarding the benefits of inclusion. Students with disabilities who are included in general education classrooms have been found to complete more assignments (National Center for Educational Restructuring & Inclusion, 1995); show significant gains in reading performance and general academic functioning (Carlson & Parshall, 1996; Marston, 1996; Shinn, Powell-Smith, Good, & Baker, 1997); and demonstrate improvements in social interaction, appropriate behavior, self-esteem, and language development (Lewis, 1994). Nondisabled students who have the opportunity to interact with disabled peers also improve their interpersonal, social, and behavioral skills (McGregor, 1993; Salend & Duhaney, 1999). Yet there is by no means complete agreement about the extent to which inclusion has fulfilled its promise in practice (Kavale & Forness, 2000; Salend & Duhaney). Some have questioned whether general education personnel have the training, supports, and resources necessary to provide quality inclusive services to students with disabilities (Evans, Townsend, Duchnowski, & Hocutt, 1996; Smetler & Rasch, 1994). In addition, some studies examining the effectiveness of inclusion have failed to find significant positive gains, and have even shown negative outcomes for students with disabilities educated in general education settings (Vaughn, Elbaum, & Schumm, 1996; Zigmond et al., 1995).

Yet despite the lack of a complete consensus, it is clear that educating students with disabilities in less restrictive environments with their nondisabled peers has become a widely accepted social value. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education, adopted by the 1994 World Conference on Special Needs Education (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1994), called for access to the general education curriculum to the maximum extent appropriate as the norm for all students regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, or emotional capabilities.

MINORITY DISPROPORTIONALITY IN EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

Regardless of divergent opinion about the effects of inclusion in practice, the goal of serving students with disabilities in general education settings to the extent possible is firmly established by both social consensus and federal mandate. Unfortunately, research suggests that access to the general education curriculum and instruction is not equally distributed across all ethnic groups.

Research suggests that students of color, especially African Americans, are overrepresented in more restrictive educational environments and underrepresented in less restrictive environments. Analyzing data from the Office for Civil Rights 1998 compliance report, Fierros and Conroy (2002) found that among students with disabilities, 55% of European American students as compared to only 37% of African American students were educated in inclusive settings (defined as spending less than 21% of the school day outside of the general classroom). Conversely, 33% of African American students with disabilities received services in substantially separate class placements, compared to only 16% of European American children with disabilities. Skiba et al. (2001) reported similar findings in analyzing data from one Midwestern state. Although accounting for 11% of the total population in the state, African American students represented only 8% of the general class special education placements, while accounting for 27% of students placed outside of general education 60% or more of the school day. Serwatka, Deering, and Grant (1995) found that African Americans are placed more frequently in more segregated settings than European American students across a range of disability categories....

NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.



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