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Article Excerpt
The author describes internal working models as unique, individualized conceptualizations of self that are embedded in and influenced by the surrounding sociocultural environment. These models, composed of beliefs, goals, and strategies, provide a framework that defines identity. Distorted, damaged, or self-defeating internal working models fail to provide stability and coherence and may lead to physical and emotional pain in the individual. Healthy psychosocial development requires an internal working model that includes accurate beliefs about self, others, and the world; meaningful goals; and effective strategies to accomplish those goals.
In the last 2 decades, a wealth of research has confirmed the accuracy and utility of Bowlby's (1969, 1973) attachment theory. To summarize briefly, strong interpersonal relationships (attachments) throughout the life cycle influence the development of internal working models "that provide a framework for understanding new experiences and guiding social interaction" (Shaver, Collins, & Clark, 1996, p. 39). One of the core assumptions of attachment theory is that people develop and are best understood in the context of relationships. Close relationships provide the life experiences from which internal working models are primarily constructed. Thus, internal working models are cognitive frameworks that conceptualize self in the context of the world and define strategies and coping mechanisms used in the pursuit of meaningful goals (Collins & Read, 1994).
A well-constructed internal working model produces a sense of coherence that includes a comprehensive understanding of the world, the motivation to pursue meaningful goals, and a belief in one's ability to handle the challenges and opportunities of life (Antonovsky, 1987). A strong sense of coherence provides the stability to embrace life with optimism and hope and is a strong predictor of psychological as well as physical health and well-being (Antonovsky, 1987). Conversely, a distorted or underdeveloped internal working model can lead to maladjustment and emotional pain. Distorted perceptions guided by inaccurate or unrealistic beliefs can produce self-defeating responses or emotional withdrawal. Individuals who have not developed meaningful goals may experience depression and poor motivation. Ineffective strategies for managing the demands and responsibilities of life often lead to stress and anxiety. These are a few examples of the importance of a well-functioning internal working model. Understanding the development and structure of a client's internal working model may provide counselors with an effective framework to help promote personal growth and development. Life experiences, close (attachment) relationships, and contextual factors influence the formation of internal working models and the interpersonal styles that emerge from them. An ecological model of development includes the influence of various systems, including parents and family, school and peer experiences, and the broader culture (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL WORKING MODELS
Construction of internal working models begins as soon as infants are born and continues throughout the life span. Because of their extreme vulnerability, children need care and nurture to maintain physical well-being and to ensure their healthy development. Infants are genetically predisposed to behave in ways that will elicit contact and nurture from their parents (Bowlby, 1969). Eye contact, smiles, and cooing are innate strategies used to gain nurture and affection. Infants soon become aware of physical sensations, such as hunger, and devise strategies, such as crying, to gain the attention of those who have the resources to meet their needs. The way parents respond to requests and demands can play a large role in the formation of internal working models. Sensitive and responsive attachment figures provide a positive prototype for understanding people, and this prototype can, to some degree, influence the pattern of future relationships (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
As infants become toddlers, the desire for comfort and security is challenged by the need to explore and understand their ever-expanding world. Attachment and exploration experiences, which Bowlby (1969) described as complementary systems, provide the data from which generalizations about people and the world are formed. Exploration and learning require a "secure base" of operation established by the stability and consistency of the parent-child relationship (Bowlby, 1969). Developmentally minded parents provide opportunities for active play and exploration while maintaining boundaries that protect children from harm. The parental challenge is to nurture and encourage exploration while at the same time setting firm boundaries and limits (Darling, 1999). A power struggle often ensues when desires are blocked and children learn the word "no." Important developmental tasks for children at this stage include learning to respect parental boundaries and to regulate affect.
The lack of a consistent, secure parent-child relationship hinders exploration, as documented by Ainsworth's (1979) well-known "strange situation" experiment. Three distinct groups emerged when infants were placed in a stressful situation that included the presence of a stranger and separation from the mother (Shaver et al., 1996). When mothers were present, securely attached infants explored the environment and engaged other people in the room. They were upset when their mothers left but relieved when they returned. Anxious-ambivalent infants, on the other hand, were anxious and reluctant to explore their surroundings even when mothers were present. When mothers left, they were extremely distressed. Upon reunion, the children appeared ambivalent and inconsolable. Finally, avoidant infants seemed uninterested in exploring and showed little distress when mothers left. They avoided eye contact when their mothers returned and seemed to be relationally disconnected. The lack of a secure parent-child attachment not only hinders the formation of healthy, accurate beliefs about self and others but also limits the amount of active exploration that facilitates learning and development.
The family into which a child is born functions as a crucible wherein internal working models are forged. A predictable family structure and rituals in the context of a nurturing environment provide the necessary consistent experiences and support that allow children to identify patterns and make sense of the world. In contrast, chaotic or unstructured environments produce anxiety and instability, which can lead to psychosocial deficiencies (Darling, 1999). Predictable structure, along with consistent discipline, encourages prosocial behaviors such as kindness, fairness, honesty, and responsibility. Learning to cooperate with siblings and peers gives children the opportunity...
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