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Self-efficacy and delay of gratification.

Article Excerpt
Abstract

The present study examined the predictive utility of self-regulation of learning, academic delay of gratification, and motivational beliefs of teaching efficacy and academic performance among preservice teachers (N = 60). Preservice teachers' motivational beliefs and self-regulatory tendencies were significantly and positively related. The results also revealed that academic self-regulation and academic delay of gratification significantly predicted preservice teachers' self-efficacy beliefs. Academic self-regulation also significantly predicted academic delay of gratification. Educational implications are discussed.

Theoretical Notions and Empirical Findings

In recent years, the trend in teacher effectiveness has somewhat shifted from investigations centered around teachers' knowledge of their content area, ability to pass state-mandated tests, and classroom management skills, to an examination of their beliefs, motivation, and self-regulatory factors associated with teaching and learning (Dembo, 2001; Randi, 2004). This shift in focus has prompted teacher preparation programs to exert greater effort than before looking at how teacher candidates learn and are trained. For instance, Dembo (2001) proposed that learning to teach content area is not enough; rather, he proposed that future teachers also need to learn how to learn and how to self-regulate their learning process. Further, he proposed that the curricula of preservice teacher preparation programs should introduce self-regulated learning strategies into the theory and research of human learning. The latest movement in teacher preparation represents a new view of teachers, and preservice teachers in particular, as self-regulated learners (Randi, 2004). On this point, Randi (2004) argued that teacher preparation programs may develop their curricula in such a way that preservice teacher can learn how to structure their environment, manage their time and social interactions, and develop critical self-regulatory learning strategies.

Another important component of teacher preparation programs and teaching practice is the teachers' sense of efficacy. In this regard, Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk (2001) observed that "teachers' sense of efficacy is an idea that neither researchers nor practitioners can afford to ignore" (p. 803). It follows, then, that the more that sense of efficacy can help preservice teachers sustain motivation and engage in self-regulation, the stronger their performance in academic courses will be. Thus, the present study examined the predictive utility of self-regulation of learning and motivational beliefs of teaching efficacy and academic performance among preservice teachers.

Bandura (1997) conceptualized self-efficacy as "beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of actions required to produce given attainments" (p. 3). Bandura (1986) later noted that "self-development of efficacy requires mastering knowledge and skills attainable only through long hours of arduous work. This often necessitates sacrifice of many immediate gratifications" (p. 448). According to Bandura (1986), a high sense of self-efficacy belief is associated with higher levels of performance and higher commitment to remain task-focused when obstacles arise. According to Zimmerman (2000), academic self-efficacy predicts academic achievement among high school students. High self-efficacy beliefs can predict persistence on tasks, effort put forth on tasks, the level of challenge that an individual is willing to pursue, and resistance to temptations and distracting factors (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996).

Intrinsic interest refers to individuals' engagement in a task for the sake of the task itself (Hidi, 1990; Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000). Learners with intrinsic interest in academic tasks display enjoyment in doing those tasks, show curiosity and mastery orientation, prefer challenging and novel tasks, often exceed teachers' expectations, are not afraid of criticism and feedback, impose internal demands and standards on themselves, find novel ways to do assignments, and produce high academic performance (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000). Students who have high intrinsic interest also report having high self-efficacy beliefs, greater use of self-regulatory learning strategies, and high academic performance (Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000). They persist longer on tasks, remain task-focused, and are willing to postpone immediate gratification for the sake of learning important academic work (Bembenutty & Karabenick, 1998). Preservice teachers are expected to display intrinsic interest in academic tasks associated with their teaching programs since they have willingly chosen that path as their future career. Thus, it is expected that intrinsic interest will predict preservice teachers' academic performance and use of learning strategies.

Teachers' self efficacy refers to "their beliefs in their ability to have a positive effect on student learning" (Ashton, 1985, p. 142). As Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk (2001) assert, teacher efficacy belief is a judgment of one's capability to influence desired outcomes related to students' performance, behavior, and motivation in the classroom. Evidence has consistently documented differential teaching effectiveness between teachers and preservice teachers who have a high sense of efficacy beliefs and those who have a low sense of efficacy beliefs. Teachers' high sense...

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