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...menstruation. fact, there are several differences in attitudes toward menstruation that have been documented in women from different countries. Anson (1999) demonstrated that the attitudes toward menstruation of Israeli, North American, Indian, and Australian undergraduate students do differ from each other; Israeli women perceived menstruation as the most debilitating and bothersome. In more recent study, it was shown that Indian women college students viewed menstruation as more natural than did American women students, and they also denied the effects of menstruation more than did American women. On the other hand, American women viewed menstruation as more debilitating than did Indian women (Hoerster, Chrisler, & Rose, 2003). Finally, another recent study shows important differences in specific aspects of attitudes toward menstruation between British and Indian under-graduates. British women showed greater agreement with items about premenstrual physical and mood changes, whereas Indian women showed greater agreement with the idea that women are more tired than usual and not expecting so much of themselves while menstruating (Bramwell, Biswas, & Anderson, 2002).
Moreover, there are also differences in the attitudes toward menstruation of subcultural groups even within largely homogeneous cultures. In Western societies, such as the United States, studies conducted in the 1980s showed differences in attitudes toward menstruation that were related to gender and age. In these studies (Brooks-Gunn & Ruble, 1986; Chrisler, 1988), men were more likely than women to view menstruation as debilitating, but women were more likely than men to view it as bothersome. College students were more likely than adults aged 30-39 years to perceive menstruation as debilitating and bothersome (Chrisler, 1988), whereas adolescents perceived menses as more debilitating but less bothersome than college students did (Brooks-Bunn & Ruble, 1980). In a later study in which some stereotypical beliefs about menstruation were analyzed, it was shown that men were more likely than women to believe that menstruation is a source of danger and stigma (Heard & Chrisler, 1999). In Spain, beliefs about menstruation have changed in recent years, according to a comparison of the discourse of women born before and after 1960. Older women were more likely to view menstruation as something shameful, obscure, and dangerous than were younger women, who perceived menstruation as a more natural process (Thuren, 1994). Furthermore, Lawlor and Choi (1998) compared the degree to which British women of different generations attributed mood states to the menstrual cycle, and concluded that women under 18 years had more positive attitudes toward menstruation than older women did.
The World Health Organization (WHO) conducted an international collaborative study of patterns and perceptions of menstruation, in which more than 5,000 women from 10 countries including Mexico were surveyed (World Health Organization, 1981). The countries that participated were Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Korea, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia. Despite the fact that most participants believed that the menses were an essential feature of femininity, a substantial proportion of them also believed that menstruation was dirty. In some cultures a menstruating woman was considered impure, and proscriptions were placed upon her social or religious activities. Many respondents believed it was advisable to avoid fields, flowers, and growing plants when menstruating. Almost all participants except those in the United Kingdom believed that sexual intercourse should be avoided during menstrual bleeding. A lot of women in some countries believed that it was inadvisable to was their hair during menstruation, and some believed that bathing during menses may adversely affect the flow of menstrual blood, increase abdominal discomfort, or be injurious to general health. Paradoxically, some respondents in all countries also held the belief that a woman should bathe more frequently during menses. Furthermore, women in all countries said they experience negative mood changes and physical discomfort associated with menstruation. Those who perceived menstruation as an illness, experienced menstrual discomfort, or reported heavy blood loss, avoided work both outside and inside the home during their menstrual periods. Finally, respondents saw menstruation as a private concern, and it was considered shameful if clothing stained with menstrual blood was seen in public. Some women were reticent to ask a sales assistant...
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