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...Moreover, since 1985 the number subscribers has increased on average 13.7% each year (CTIA, 2004). Cain and Burris (1999) reported the same general trends between 1985 and 1998. Ownership of cellular phones in the United States is now nearing saturation levels. What was a novelty a few years ago is now ubiquitous.
Clearly, cellular phones have advantages. Cellular phones allow mobility in communicating with others. As technology progresses, the seemingly innocuous cellular phone has continued to advance in adding more functional features (e.g., personal digital assistants, video, Internet). However, despite their benefits, there are disadvantages, and one is in their use by drivers and consequent distraction from the task of driving.
Research in recent years has employed several kinds of methodologies to investigate the potential effects of cellular phones on driving performance. These include epidemiological investigations (Redelmeier & Tibshirani, 1997; Violanti, 1998; Violanti & Marshall, 1996), observational studies (Reinfurt, Huang, Feaganes, & Hunter, 2001), simulator studies (Alm & Nilsson, 1994; Briem & Hedman, 1995; Haigney, Taylor, & Westerman, 2000; McKnight & McKnight, 1993; Reed & Green, 1999; Strayer, Drews, Albert, & Johnston, 2001; Strayer, Drews, & Johnston, 2002; Strayer & Johnston, 2001), and open road studies (Brookhuis, de Vries, & de Waard, 1991; Reed & Green, 1999). Overall, research on the topic of concomitant use of cellular phones and driving indicates that their use can lead to decreased driving performance and an increased risk of being involved in an accident.
There are various factors when pairing cellular phone use and driving that may contribute to increased frequency of vehicular accidents. These factors include dialing, answering, and talking on the phone, all of which increase the user's cognitive load (Lamble, Kauranen, Laakso, & Summala, 1999). It diverts some attention away from the driving task (Goodman, Tijerina, Bents, & Wierwille, 1999), reducing the amount of limited attention capacity available for processing the driving task which could be used for dealing with hazards that may occur and thereby increasing the likelihood of an accident. One proposed solution to this problem is the use of hands-free equipment (headsets, etc.). In fact, there have been several attempts to prohibit the use of cellular phones while driving unless hands-free equipment is used. According to a National Conference of State Legislatures (2002) report, the legislatures of the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and 43 states have proposed one or more bills pertaining to cellular phones and driving. However, only one state to date, the State of New York, has outlawed the use of cellular phones while driving except when hands-free equipment is used (Use of Mobile Telephones, 2001). Although hands-free equipment may decrease accident risks related to the handling of cellular phones, there still is the problem of cognitive load and attention distraction. Some of the driver's limited attention capacity is absorbed in listening and talking on the phone, using processing resources that would otherwise be used for the driving task (e.g., Lamble et al., 1999).
Although there have been several attempts (Horberry, Bubnich, Hartley, & Lamble, 2001; Reinfurt et al., 2001; Violanti & Marshall, 1996) to determine the frequency of cellular phone use while driving, no study has addressed the issue of whether perceptions differ between cellular phone users and nonusers on issues pertaining to vehicular safety and laws. Cellular phone users may perceive talking on a cellular phone while driving to be less of a safety problem than do nonusers of cellular phones. Moreover, it may be that cellular phone users believe themselves to be better able than others to use a cellular phone when driving, a phenomenon known as optimism bias (Dalziel & lob, 1997; Dejoy, 1987). Optimism bias is a systematic error in perception of an individual's own standing relative to group averages, in which positive events are seen as more likely to occur to the individual as compared with the average of a group, and conversely, negative events are seen as less likely to occur to the individual as compared with the average of a group (Dalziel & Job, 1997). In the present research, participants were classified as cellular phone users according to a number of categorizations, such as ownership and weekly usage estimates.
In addition, users and nonusers of cellular phones may have different perceptions on other issues related to cellular phones. For example, they may differ with regard to beliefs regarding the likelihood that a set of basic operator actions (e.g., dialing or answering a call) constitutes a potential cause of accidents. In addition, cellular phone users may be more resistant to new laws than are nonusers.
In the present study, cellular phone users and nonusers evaluated a set of statements regarding (a) the safety of using cellular phones while driving, (b) the potential of phone-related operator actions in causing an accident, and (c) the establishment of new cellular phone laws. Also examined was whether (a) use of cellular phone safety accessories, (b) accident and near-miss experiences, and (c) demographic variables relate to safety beliefs about cellular phone use while driving.
METHOD
Participants
The participants were 330 volunteers (217 men, 113 women) from the Research Triangle region of North Carolina, including the cities of Raleigh, Durham, and Chapel Hill. The sample consisted of 221 undergraduate students (M = 21.3 years, SD = 2.4) and 109 nonstudents (M = 54.2 years, SD = 15.1). Their average education was 15.1 years (SD = 1.9) or a junior in college. The respondents were predominantly Caucasian (84%), followed by African-American (5%), Asian (5%), Latino (2%), mixed race (2%), and other (4%). English was the first language for 313 (95%) of the participants.
Materials and Procedure
Each participant completed a multiple-topic survey that included items on demographics, driving safety, product literature, and electric vehicles. The present study focuses on the items concerning (a) cellular phone use generally and while driving, with and without accessories such as voice activation and hands-free equipment; (b) beliefs about the safety of driving while using a cellular phone; (c) operator actions involving cellular phones that might cause vehicle accidents; and (d) the need for new laws. Also examined were basic demographic information and participant reports of accidents or near misses involving cellular phone use.
Cellular phone use. The cellular phone usage items asked participants about ownership of a cellular phone, amount of use, whether they use one while driving, and whether they have and use accessories that may reduce manual handling. The items were as follows: (a) "Do you own a cellular phone?" (b) "Estimate how many minutes per week that you use a cellular phone." (c) "Do you use a cellular phone while driving a vehicle?" (d) "Do you use a cellular phone that has voice-activated dialing?" (e) "Do you use the voice-activated feature when driving your vehicle?" (f) "Do you have a hands-free adapter for cellular phone use in a vehicle?" (g) "Do you use a hands-free adapter for a cellular phone while driving?" For all of these items participants responded yes or no, except for Item b, for which they made a numerical estimate of the minutes per week that they use a cellular phone.
Safety beliefs. The safety belief items consisted of the following: (a) "It is important to have a cellular phone available in vehicles in case of an emergency." (b) "I want other drivers not to use cellular phones." (c) "I can use a...
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