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Article Excerpt
Based on expectations from previous studies, data from field notes, pre- and post-questionnaires, class documentation, student papers from 35 undergraduate and graduate students, and the content of a focus group session were analyzed to relate students' pre-course attitudes and expectations, and several cognitive factors to participation levels and perceptions about learning via asynchronous online discussions to supplement class meetings. Results showed that while students' attitudes and expectations about computers and online learning were not significantly correlated to their participation levels and perceptions of learning, several significant intercorrelations between pre-course attitudes, expectations about bulletin board systems (BBS) used for class discussions, and expected learning were found. In addition, greater levels of participation were found to engender greater satisfaction. Findings suggest several methods which may be used to change students' perceptions and raise their levels of participation.
Introduction
Research in the instructional use of asynchronous computer conferencing (CC) shows that, in general, participation and interaction in online discussions can be at least as high as in face-to-face discussions (Hiltz, 1990; Pena-Shaff, Martin & Gay, 2001, Pena-Shaff & Nicholls, 2004).
Moreover, content analyses of electronic messages also have shown that online discussions support collaborative learning (Resta, 1995; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996), favor the use of critical thinking skills (Newman, Webb, & Cochrane, 1995; Newman, Johnson, Cochrane, & Webb, 1996), and promote the social construction of knowledge (Butler, 1992; Pena-Shaff et al., 2001, Pena-Shaff & Nicholls, 2004; Zhu, 1996).
Studies examining students' perceptions of online learning experiences, however, report mixed results (Davidson-Shivers, Tanner, & Muilenburg, 2000; O'Reilly & Newton, 2001; Sturgill, Martin & Gay, 1999; Wilson & Whitelock, 1998). For example, Wilson and Whitelock (1998) found that although over half of the students valued the possible interactions with students or tutors, half were either unsure or could not see a learning benefit from the interactions with others. Also, Sturgill and colleagues (1999), in assessing the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and online discussions as supplements to regular class meetings, found that many students felt great frustration when required to use CMC as part of their learning process while learning about this technology; felt that they had not learned; and found CC to be distant and dehumanizing. However, as the authors explain, even though not conscious of it, students evidenced deep understanding of the course topic, indicating that learning did occur.
These studies show that within the same course students display different levels of satisfaction with CC and perceive the value of online discussions differently. Therefore, course design and instructor's style can account only for part of the variance found in these studies. Student characteristics are important variables to consider when analyzing the learning benefits of new teaching approaches or new learning environments.
Student Characteristics and Learning in Online Discussions
Several studies have mentioned that student characteristics may affect the use and success of online discussions in learning environments (Heller & Kearsley, 1995; Ellis and McCreary, 1985, Hiltz, 1990; Mason, 1992). Some researchers acknowledge self-responsibility and self-regulated learning as student characteristics that affect participation and perceptions about the learning benefits of CC (Heller & Kearsley, 1995; Hiemstra and Sysco, 1990). Mason (1992) also explains that some of the problems with online learning environments can be attributed partly to students' passivity. Koschmann, (1996) warns that the learners' intentions regarding the acquisition of knowledge and the effort required in that endeavor should also be considered, since some students are more active than others and therefore enjoy the process of active mental construction more, while other students merely with to pass their courses with a limited amount of effort. In this context, Fang (1998) and Wolfradt and Doll (2001), note that students' self-efficacy and levels of innovativeness were also tied to their propensity to use CMC to acquire information.
Motivation has also been cited as possibly affecting students' attitudes toward online discussions. Several studies report that when CC is used as a supplement to regular class meetings students perceive it as a time consuming and burdensome activity. This affects their attitudes toward the use of CC (Althous, 1997; Smith, 1994; Sturgill, et al., 1999), and probably overshadows the learning benefits of online discussions (Sturgill, et al., 1999). Several researchers have found the need for some type of reinforcement for participation when online discussions are used outside of class (Althous, 1997; Hawisher & Pemberton, 1997; Jiang & Ting, 1998; Ruberg, Moore & Taylor, 1996). For example, Jiang and Ting (1998) found positive correlations between students' perceived learning in online courses and the percentage of course grade attributed to online discussions. According to Hawisher and Pemberton (1997), "students need to be made accountable for their participation [in online discussions]. Mere instructor encouragement and good will are generally not enough to overcome the initial inertia most students experience when they take on what appears to be an extra burden" (p. 69). However, Irvine (2000), points out that the use of incentives may actually hinder participation and learning. Learning goals have also been shown to affect learning outcomes and motivation to participate (Tergan, 1997). In this sense, a major factor in students' acceptance and use of CMC is the degree to which they perceive it as useful (Fang, 1998; Tolmie & Boyle, 2000).
Latting (1994) reported that prior contact with an instructor and experience with cooperative learning were important factors that could alleviate anxiety and affect student participation in online discussions. Fowell and Levy (1995) found that fear and anxiety initially affected students' acceptance of the online assignments and inhibited participation, although as students' levels of confidence and skills increased so did their participation. In this regard, Fishman (1999) reported that communication apprehension, especially apprehension about written communication, can affect students' participation and interaction in online discussions and their perceived learning benefits.
Hastings (2000) and Vranesh (2002) emphasize the need to consider students' learning styles when choosing a particular instructional design. Hastings (2000) reports that online class discussions were ranked both as the most and the least effective activity, "illustrating that what works well for one student does not work well for others" (p.7).
Finally, it has been reported that students' level of cognitive maturity may affect their perceptions of online discussions (Baxter Magolda, 1992; Boeglin & Campbell, 2002). Baxter Magolda (1992) posits that students interpret their educational experiences based on their assumptions about the nature of, limits of, and certainty about knowledge. Thus when faced with a new, open-ended, learner-centered, cooperative learning experience, some students experience cognitive dissonance. Moreover, due to their levels of epistemological immaturity, some students may not find other students' contributions via CC to be credible sources of knowledge. In this regard, Boeglin and Campbell (2002) suggest that some learners expect only to learn from an intellectual authority.
Just as in face-to-face courses, what students bring to the teaching-learning process affects their participation, interactions, and perceptions about the possible learning outcomes of a course, and of CC. As the use of CC for distance learning and as a supplement to regular class discussions increases, it is imperative to understand how students' characteristics may affect their participation in online discussions, and even more importantly how these characteristics may affect their perceptions about whether they learn from these experiences. Studying which characteristics may affect the use of online discussions can be beneficial for instructors who may then give special attention to those students needing more support, enabling them to design scaffolding activities that help students become comfortable sharing ideas in online discussions (Fishman, 1999). Very few of the studies undertaken in this area have addressed actual measures of perceptual change, relying instead solely on post-experience questionnaires.
Through the comparison of pretest and posttest measures, this study analyzes students' attitudes and expectations about the use of asynchronous CC for learning and their perceptions about the quality of learning that results. The following specific research questions are addressed:
1. How do students' attitudes and expectations towards computers and online discussions for class purposes influence their participation and their perceived learning...
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