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Article Excerpt
This study investigated the "the effects of receiving the preferred form of online assessment feedback upon middle school mathematics students." Students completed a Web-based quadratics equations learning module followed by a randomly generated online quiz that they could practise as often as they liked. The effect of receiving their preferred form of feedback (either competitive or individualistic) upon their academic performance and attitude indicators was measured.
The three key findings of the study were that:
i) The facility to practice led to a significant improvement in test scores
ii) Providing students with their non-preferred form of feedback had a significantly negative impact on their mathematics ability self-rating
iii) Boys appeared more likely to adopt a fixated approach to this "power based" repetitive practise task.
The differential effect of competitive versus individualistic feedback was also analysed.
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study was to investigate "the effects of receiving the preferred form of online assessment feedback upon middle school mathematics students."
Specifically, high school students who completed an online mathematics learning module and quiz system were first asked whether they preferred to receive performance feedback that compares them to other people (norm-referenced or "competitive") or to their own past attempts (self-referenced or "individualistic"). Students then worked through an online quadratic equations learning module followed by a randomly generated and timed online quiz that they could practise as often as they chose (formative assessment). At each attempt all students received corrective and performance feedback, with approximately one- third of the students receiving their preferred form of comparative feedback (either competitive or individualistic), one-third receiving their non-preferred form of comparative feedback, and one-third receiving no comparative feedback.
Approximately one week later students completed a final quiz (summative assessment) and completed a post-survey. The pre-survey, quiz, and post-survey data were then analysed to gauge the effect of receiving preferred versus non-preferred and competitive versus individualistic forms of online feedback upon students' performance and attitude. The data were also analysed ex post-facto to detect other educationally pertinent results, such as any differences in gender effects of the experiment.
This research was conducted online using a site specifically constructed for this experiment. To gain an appreciation for the instruments and processes utilised in this project (pre-survey, quadratic equations learning module, randomly generated quizzes, and post-survey) please visit the site at http://n2.mpce.mq.edu.au/~mbower/qaf/ (1)
Background
Providing learners with online performance feedback is becoming more prevalent in educational contexts worldwide. However, concerns arise over the form of that feedback (either self-referenced, norm-referenced, or criterion-referenced) and the effects it has upon students' performance, attribution of academic success, and self-esteem. The research conducted in this experiment attempted to determine the effect of receiving differential forms of feedback upon learner academic performance and attitude.
There has been some encouraging research to date regarding the effect of Web-based feedback upon students. Sonak, Suen, Zappe, and Hunter (2002) found a direct positive relationship between the amount of time that junior high school students used an online performance feedback system and their academic performance (p. 15). In another experiment involving 176 first year psychology undergraduates, Cassady, Budenz-Anders, Pavlechko, and Mock (2001) found significant differences in performance in the final examination between students who did and did not take advantage of online formative assessment quizzes (p. 6).
One of the key advantages of online assessment is its capacity to provide retesting opportunities to promote mastery learning. In their investigation into the effect of criterion-referenced grading and retesting opportunities on the performance (and motivation) of first year psychology students Covington and Omelich (1984) found that "performance superiority of mastery instruction occurred primarily because of the retest option, with enhanced motivation due to both retesting opportunities and criterion-referenced standards" (p. 1038).
However there has always been contention regarding the type of feedback that students should receive. Historically research into the effect of competitive (norm-referenced) goal structures versus individualistic (self-referenced) goal structures upon academic performance has not been conclusive. Lewis and Cooney (1986, p. 3) report:
In a meta-analysis of 122 studies of the effects of goal structures on achievement, Johnson, Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, and Skor (1981) reached three broad conclusions: ... (3) that competitive and individualistic structures do not have significant differential effects on achievement. Other reviewers have reached different conclusions (see Hayes, 1976; Slavin, 1977). While most reviewers conclude that competitive and individualistic goal structures do not produce differential effects on achievement.
Since then resolution has not been reached. Some researchers have argued in favour of a competitive approach to feedback. Becker and Rosen (1992) employed cost/benefit stochastic modelling to advocate "competition among students does stimulate academic effort provided students are appropriately rewarded for achievement" (p. 108), discounting competency-based grading as a less effective assessment approach to promote academic performance. Lam, Yim, Law, and Rebecca (2001) found that a competitive environment during a 2-hour Chinese typewriting course lead to significantly better performance in easy tasks compared to students in a non-competitive environment, supporting the idea that competitive goal structures can enhance academic achievement.
In contrast to this, other evidence has suggested that competition leads to negative student outcomes, as compared to an individualistic focus. In the same typewriting course Lam et al. (2001) noted that students placed in a competitive environment were "more likely to sacrifice learning opportunities for better performance," (p. 1). They point out that in competition "students seek positive judgement of competence by outperforming others. To achieve this end, they may avoid challenge when they are not sure of winning," (p. 18).
There have been notable differences in attribution of success under competitive versus individualistic goal structures. Lewis and Cooney (1986, p. 4) commented that "competitive goal structures seem to foster ability attributions for success and failure. In contrast individualistic reward structures are more likely to result in effort attributions."
The problem with fostering ability attributions under competitive goal structures is that it can have an impact on student self-concept. Covington and Omelich (1984, p. 1039) cite Feldman and Ruble, Levine, and Veroff to argue that "competition raises student's doubts about their ability by directing their attention to social comparison information." This could potentially have long term negative effects on the learner, particularly less able students. Nicholls, cited in Lewis and Cooney (1986, p. 4) suggests that "social comparison for low achievers may be predicted to lead to the maintenance of a low self-concept of ability and, thus, low motivation."
The issue regarding which form of goal structure (feedback) should be implemented revolves around the fact that different forms of feedback...
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