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Article Excerpt
This article reports on a case study conducted to examine the instructional strategies utilized, teacher and student attitudes, and student achievement when a sixth-grade teacher and her 19 students implemented a hypermedia, problem-based learning unit. Results revealed that the teacher used questioning, peer support, group and individual feedback, and structured management as primary instructional strategies. Overall the teacher's attitudes were positive, although she expressed frustration at not having enough time to complete every activity. While the teacher was not completely satisfied with students' performance, student achievement was generally average, and their attitudes were generally positive. Findings suggest it may possible for designers of problem-based environments to support teachers' efforts through overt integration of questioning, collaboration, feedback, and management strategies within the instructor materials. These strategies represent effective instructional practice, and using them within the context of problem-based environments may potentially lead to greater teacher satisfaction and student achievement.
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Engaging learners in problem solving represents one means for achieving the goal of promoting understanding and retention of concepts, facts, and skills (Gallagher, 1997; Rabinowitz & Glaser, 1985). Problem-Based Learning (PBL) combines learning theories about problem solving with the case study approach (Gallagher, 1997) in which students are presented with problems embedded in relevant, resource-rich contexts (Hoffman & Ritchie, 1997). Students assume the role of primary researchers as they analyze the problem, consider possible solutions, develop a plan, and evaluate the outcome (Kaufman & Mann, 1997). One main goal within this context is to encourage high level thinking as students address complex problems reflecting real world practice where multiple problem solving approaches are possible (Finkel & Torp, 1995). In this way, the PBL environment serves as an "apprenticeship for real-life problem solving." (Stepien & Gallagher, 1993, p.25).
PBL has been implemented in a variety of settings, from higher education--such as medical, education, and business schools--to elementary, middle, and secondary schools. The Center for Problem-Based Learning at the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy was one of the early K-12 promoters of problem-based learning. Early curriculum efforts focused on gifted education; however expansion of its initiatives led to encompassing learners of varying ability (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, 2002). This PBL model involves placing students in an ill-structured domain that mirrors real-world instances. Students proceed through a variety of activities to frame their understanding of the problem, access resources, gain understanding, and recommend solutions. Teachers act as guides to limit the confines of the problem, provide assistance, monitor students' progress, and give feedback (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, 2002).
Researchers of problem-solving environments indicate that students tend to develop more positive attitudes toward learning than students in more traditional environments (Sobral, 1995; Kaufman & Mann, 1997), and achieve essentially the same knowledge level as those receiving traditional instruction (Gallagher & Stepien, 1996; Brush & Saye, 2000). Norman and Schmidt (1992) in their review of PBL research suggest that students seem to be intrinsically motivated when these studies summarized effects on goal orientations. Results from a meta-analysis of PBL medical school models reported that medical students enrolled in traditional programs tended to score higher on standardized measures of basic science knowledge than those in problem-based programs; however, PBL students seemed to have superior long-term recall, since they purportedly held a deeper understanding of the content (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993).
However, implementation of problem-based learning is not without drawbacks, both for students and teachers. For students, one drawback is the difficulty they have with regard to assuming a different, more active role. Researchers have reported students often refrain from initiating interaction in the form of questioning their peers when confused about a concept, and instead seek to solicit "correct answers" from the teacher (Herrenkohl & Guerra, 1998). Schmidt, Boshuize, and de Vries (1992) reported medical students needed at least six months to adjust to the new, self-directed learning environment when immersed in a problem-based curriculum.
For teachers, the drawbacks center on the lack of experience many teachers have with more open-ended domains (Brush & Saye, 2000; Land, 2000). Teachers must assume a primarily guiding role (Brush & Saye, 2000; Herrenkohl, Palincsar, DeWater, & Kawasaki, 1999), which requires them to attend to many different aspects of the learning environment at one time. Additionally, they must continue to engage in sound teaching practice: maintaining student interest, providing access to a variety of resources, monitoring student progress, gauging the type of feedback to give learners, and continually facilitating the learning process (Brush & Saye, 2000; Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, & Perry, 1995; Gallagher, 1997).
Furthermore, many researchers have found that teachers express frustration with the amount of time it takes to implement problem-based experiences (Maor & Fraser, 1996; Rhodes, 1999; Pierce & Jones, 2002). In addition, teachers have reported difficulty transitioning students into their more active roles (Mammen, 1996; Gallagher, 1997). Other researchers have described teachers' difficulty in knowing how to assess students (Glazewski & Brinkerhoff, 2001).
The way in which teachers manage these environments has implications for learners, educational researchers, and instructional designers alike. A deeper examination into what teachers do when implementing a new and different environment such as PBL can provide greater understanding regarding what they need for success. In light of this, we conducted a case study to examine the instructional strategies utilized by one teacher during the implementation of a hypermedia, PBL unit. Our purpose was to examine the following research questions:
1) What instructional strategies were utilized during the implementation of a hypermedia, problem-based learning unit?
2) What was the impact of the PBL unit on teacher attitudes regarding problem-based learning?
3) How effective was the PBL unit with regard to student learning and attitudes?
METHOD
Participants and Setting
Participants in this case study were a sixth-grade teacher and 19 students enrolled in an enrichment course entitled "Global Connections." The teacher was in her seventh year of teaching, and had previously taught a variety of subjects and grades. Although the teacher described herself as using "different forms of student-centered learning" in her approach, she had never taught using a problem-based method.
Twelve of the students were female and seven male. Students were selected to be in this course on the basis of recommendations from their fifth grade teachers. Recommendation criteria included an interest in technology and a willingness to learn about diversity and other cultures. Students ranged in ability from high-achieving to special education, but most of the students were described by the teacher as "in the middle."
Materials
Student Materials. The unit used in this study was Up, Up, & Away!, an interdisciplinary hypermedia, problem-based learning unit developed in accordance with the guidelines provided by the Center for Problem-Based Learning operated by the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy (2002). Up, Up, & Away! integrates learning goals specifically relating to meteorological concepts, math, geography, and language arts. At the center of this unit is a challenging problem that guides and directs the learning activities. At the opening screen (see Figure 1), students are given the task of planning a global circumnavigation via balloon, a feat attempted by a host of teams and accomplished for the first time in 1999. The hypermedia database contains linked informational multimedia Web pages about ballooning.
The opening screen also holds links to three options: Project, Resources, and Hints (see Figure 1). The Project button takes students to a screen detailing the three components expected for the completed project. The components include a description of requirements for Balloon Design, Travel Plan, and Supply List. The Balloon Design directs students...
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