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...inquiry instruction 2000). A pilot study using a purposive sample of ten science teachers was conducted to establish the rubric as both an observation tool and a self-reflection instrument. While the overall correlation of the instrument (r=.58) does not support its use as a self-assessment instrument, a perfect correlation between two raters (r=1) established the STIR as an effective observation tool. Additionally, the validation of the instrument provided various insights into the teaching of inquiry in science classrooms.
Introduction
Scientific literacy has become a critical issue for all citizens of the United States. To gain the status of lifelong literacy, it is no longer enough to have reading and writing skills. Science and technology have become so important in modern life that the ability of citizens to understand and use science can spell the difference between prosperity and decline, between security and vulnerability (National Research Council [NRC], 1996). Helping students to develop into scientifically literate citizens is a perennial objective noted in recent science education reform initiatives (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1990, 1993; NRC, 1996; National Science Teachers Association, 1982). Scientific literacy is often recognized as the knowledge of significant science subject matter, the ability to apply that knowledge and understandings in everyday situations, and an understanding of the characteristics of science and its interactions with society and personal life. Scientific literacy as defined by AAAS's (1990) Project 2061 addresses the understandings and habits of mind that enable people to grasp what those enterprises are up to, to make some sense of how the natural and designed worlds work, to think critically and independently, and to recognize and weigh alternative explanations of events. According to the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) [henceforth Standards], the development of scientifically literate students involves providing classroom learners with a science curriculum that teaches science as a body of knowledge and as a way of knowing about the natural world based on evidence from observation and experimentation.
Implementing a standards-based science curriculum is a formidable challenge for elementary teachers, most of whom are not science specialists. Furthermore, science, as a separate subject, is generally given a smaller amount of instruction time in comparison to other subjects. A survey conducted by Fulp (2002) showed that "grade K-5 self-contained classes spent an average of 25 minutes each day in science instruction, compared to 114 minutes of reading/language arts, 53 minutes in mathematics and 23 minutes in social studies" (p. 11). In addition to the limited instructional time spent on science, there are other factors that influence science teaching in elementary school classrooms:
* Teacher perception of the importance of science in an elementary curriculum
* Limited content knowledge held by elementary teachers
* Limited experience through formal coursework in participating in and presenting hands-on science
* Lack of administrative support for the teaching of science (Abell & Roth, 1992)
Science educators have long recognized that teaching science is a complex subject. Successful science teachers strive to help their students understand and apply scientific concepts, participate in scientific inquiry, and understand the nature of science. Furthermore, the Standards call for a pedagogical shift from a teacher-centered to a student-centered instructional paradigm. Teacher-centered instructional strategies such as large-group instruction, recitation, drill, and opportunities for independent practice are successful for tasks that demand rote memorization; they have not been shown to be effective for teaching higher-order thinking and problem solving (Anderson, 1997). The Standards advocate a change in emphasis from students memorizing facts and terminology to students investigating nature through active learning that will result in making science accessible to all students, which will then lead to a more scientifically literate citizenry.
Inquiry-Based Teaching and Learning
Science educators have long recommended that learning with inquiry be placed at the core of science instruction to actively engage learners in the processes of science (AAAS, 1993; DeBoer, 1991; NRC, 1996). As early as the 1960s, Schwab (1962) suggested that the teaching of science inquiry be a priority in science education, that teachers teach students both to conduct investigations in inquiry and to view science itself as a process of inquiry. More recently, the Standards include science inquiry as one of eight categories in their content standards.
One of the NRC's reasons for advocating inquiry mirrors the rationales offered by Schwab (1962): Instruction in inquiry promotes student understanding of the nature of science. Currently, the Standards present a description of inquiry instruction that includes the nature of science as well as "science as a process," in which students learn skills such as observation, inference, and experimentation. According to the Standards,
Inquiry teaching...
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