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...series vignettes describing conflict situation with a cross-sex friend were analyzed to determine grade and gender differences in the association between perceived boundary violations and conflict goal reports. Examination of participant boundary and goal responses indicated adolescents' perceptions of intimacy boundary violations were associated with reports of relational and avoidance goals. Further, grade and gender moderated the association between perception of power boundary violations and reports of control and relational goals. Findings from the current study support the hypothesis that perceptions of boundary violations are associated with adolescent reports of conflict and assist in explaining grade and gender differences in adolescent reports of conflict goals used during hypothetical conflicts with cross-sex friends.
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Relationship boundaries define appropriate behavior between individuals during interpersonal interactions (La Voie, Johnson, Mahoney, Ramet, & Anderson, 1998; Zak, Hunton, Kuhn, & Parks, 1997), and influence behavior by establishing guidelines for appropriate and inappropriate behavior (Sroufe, Bennett, Englund, Urban, & Shulman, 1993). As cross-sex friendships develop during adolescence, the formation of boundaries becomes influential in defining appropriate behaviors within these interactions. According to Emery (1992), boundaries are defined according to intimacy and power expectations. These expectations guide behavior by defining either appropriate displays of intimacy in the relationship and the amount of intimacy one can demand from another or the degree of authority one can assert over another and the degree to which one can demand from another. Further, Emery (1992) states that violations of power and intimacy boundaries are associated with violations of relationship expectations, which results in conflict. Therefore, boundary violations are associated with conflict interactions, and conflict that occurs within the context of close relationships reflects "intimacy or power struggles" (Emery, 1992, p. 270).
Boundaries in Adolescent Relationships
Intimacy boundaries. An important boundary that adolescents develop in the formation of their friendships involves intimacy (Clark & Bittle, 1992; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998), and Sullivan (1953) notes that male and female adolescents develop friendships to meet their needs for intimacy (e.g., mutual empathy, love, and security). Adolescents' desire for intimacy in their friendships directs them to structure relationship boundaries around the sharing of thoughts and feelings as well as increasing social support for one another (Buhrmester & Furman, 1987; Furman & Buhrmester, 1992). Therefore, these boundaries define appropriate displays of intimacy in the relationship and the amount of intimacy one can demand from another without violating relationship expectations. Achieving intimacy within cross-sex friendships is an integral aspect of adolescent development (Sullivan, 1953), and it increases from middle childhood to adolescence (Collins & Repinski, 1994; Rubin et al., 1998). Clark and Ayers (1993) and Clark and Bittle (1992) report that female adolescents stress the importance of maintaining intimacy and expect more intimacy in their friendships than do males. Further, adolescent females have more intimate interactions with friends than do males (Collins & Repinski, 1994) and indicate more comfort than males during intimate interactions (Foot, Chapman, & Smith, 1997). Although males increasingly report a desire for intimacy in their friendships across adolescence, the level of intimacy within adolescent male friendships does not approach the level seen in female friendships (Buhrmester & Furman, 1987).
Power boundaries. Within the context of adolescent friendships, power boundaries refer to the degree of authority one can assert over another or the degree to which one can demand from another (Emery, 1992). Defining power boundaries in the relationship allows individuals to recognize the autonomy and self-governing of others, and the establishment of power boundaries within adolescent friendships is accomplished by emphasizing autonomy more than connectedness (Brainerd, Hunter, Moore, & Thompson, 1996; Fischer, Munsch, & Greene, 1996). Research examining the desire for autonomy in relationships (i.e., Clark & Ayers, 1993; Clark & Bittle, 1992) has shown that males' primary, source of meaning and value is found in their autonomy and individuality. Maccoby (1990) stresses that issues of power and individuality in males' social relationships are attempts to establish autonomy within their social interactions. Clark and Bittle's (1992) examination of relationship expectations indicated that males were more likely than females to stress individuality and self-governing as an important factor in their friendships. Furman and Buhrmester (1992) also report that early-adolescent males exercise more power during interactions with friends than do females. Maccoby (1990), however, notes that upon reaching late-adolescence, females become more assertive and power seeking in their friendships.
Intimacy Boundary Violations
Intimacy violations disrupt relationship expectations regarding appropriate displays of intimate behavior (e.g., keeping secrets). According to Emery (1992), conflict goals used in response to intimacy boundary violations are focused at maintaining the relationship. Because the desired goal during intimacy violations is to maintain the relationship, adolescents who experience intimacy boundaries violations are likely to employ conflict goals that are mutually beneficial to members of the relationship (i.e., employment of relational goals). Although intimacy is an important boundary in adolescent male and female relationships, female adolescents stress the importance of minimizing conflict and maintaining intimacy in their friendships more than do males (Clark & Ayers, 1993; Jarvinen & Nicholls, 1996). Further, females are more anxious than males in response to intimacy conflicts and develop more flexible conflict styles in attempt to maintain relationship closeness (Gavin & Furman, 1989; Jarvinen & Nicholls, 1996).
Power Boundary Violations
Power boundary, violations disrupt existing expectations of authority in the relationship (e.g., telling another what to do), and are associated with goals used to either re-establish the current status of power or change the power structure of the relationship through controlling other's behaviors. Emery (1992) states that control-oriented goals are used in response to power boundary violations, and gender differences in adolescent relationship expectations suggest that males are more likely than females to report control-oriented goals in response to power boundary violations. Male adolescents are more responsive to conflict concerning autonomy and independence than females (Buhrmester, 1996), and develop more controlling conflict styles (i.e., use of control goals) than females to minimize damage to their perceived levels of power in the relationship (Laursen, 1995; Laursen & Collins, 1994).
Current Study
As previously stated, research examining adolescent relationships has revealed age and gender differences in relationship expectations within cross-sex friendships. However, this research has not examined the association between perceived violations of relationship expectations and age and gender differences in the goals adolescents choose to resolve the violation within their cross-sex friendships. Adolescent conflict research has focused primarily on same-sex relationships or has not distinguished between same- and cross-sex relationships. However, Furman and Wehner (1994) state there is a cross-relationship link in behavior seen in adolescents' same- and cross-sex friendships. According to this view, same- and cross-sex adolescent relationships may be related in terms of expectations, and adolescent behavior is "likely to be influenced by their...
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