|
Article Excerpt
In chapter V, titled "Change and Progress," in his now classic Evolutionary Economics: A Study of Change in Economic Thought, David Hamilton contrasted beliefs in magic and mystic potencies with the matter-of-fact knowledge of technology in the form of tools, machines, and techniques of production (1999, 93, 109, 111, 112). As with most evolutionary economists, his view of technological change and progress is derived from Charles Darwin (Hamilton 1999, 121, 25-28). It is also "relatively optimistic" (116, 115). Though critical of the static Newtonian worldview and its simplistic absorption in the core of economic methods and methodology, Hamilton was not directly critical of scientific inquiry, including physics. Certainly, as Hamilton recognized, the eighteenth century Newtonians shared the optimism of the later Darwinians (20). Nor was Hamilton critical of eighteenth century social perspective based on overturning the reverence for the classical civilization with "enlightened reason" nor with the "revolutio nary effects of the displacement of the medieval cosmology by new ways of viewing things" (20). He may have been, but specifically, Hamilton argued that this new way of thought was "not as revolutionary as some of its chief progenitors and many of its later interpreters thought it to be" (20). The intent of the eighteenth century theorists may have been worthy, but the execution was faulty. We could further generalize and argue that almost all of what was known as science or natural philosophy in Western culture at that time, implicitly or explicitly, assumed some non-empirical, non-verifiable vital essence.
Between eighteenth century Newtonianism and Darwin, there was another revolution in thought that shaped Darwinism and much of the anthropology that Hamilton has effectively utilized. Though a modern engineer may use Newtonian mechanics as matter-of-fact knowledge in a technological endeavor, eighteenth century Newtonian mechanics, when utilized as social philosophy, lacked the truly revolutionary outcome of removing magic or the belief in the "mystic potency" of unseen forces. That was achieved by the revolution in thought in chemistry laying the foundation for modern chemistry, agriculture, nutrition, physiology, and medicine. And chemistry remains at the heart of many contemporary issues, conflicts, and strange dichotomies: synthesis (as opposed to reductionism) is good while synthetic is suspect, organic refers to something other than a carbon-based compound, and chemical has become a code word for manufactured chemical and the source of evil in modern life. All these issues have come to the forefront in a n area in which Hamilton gained considerable, well-justified renown-consumer economics. A brief look at some of the history of these issues is in order.
The Rise of Science, the Decline of Vitalism
Jean Mayer, in his Lowell Lecture (1989), dated the origin of scientific nutrition with the work of Antoine Lavoisier. "First came an understanding of the organism as an engine. The understanding of the energetic aspects-the caloric aspect of nutrition, if you want-started in the 1 780s, with a very famous set of experiments conducted in 1789 by Lavoisier. These "experiments established clearly that there was a similarity, indeed, an identity between the phenomenon of combustion and the phenomenon of respiration and that respiration was the oxidation of foods by the individual; that what one observed was in fact a machine, an engine, burning food in order to function, to maintain its body temperature, to move, to grow." Lavoisier's work on combustion overturned phlogiston theory and related theories of the alchemists (Asimov 1962, 49).
Lavoisier's work began the process of freeing science from the vitalist belief in an invisible force, or vis viva. There is nothing in Lavoisier or in Mayer, or in this view by others, against seeing humans in a multiplicity of other dimensions. Biologists may be "materialists" in denying "supernatural or immaterial forces" and accepting those that are "physico-chemical," but neither do they accept "naive mechanistic" explanations or any belief that "animals are 'nothing but' machines" (Mayr 1982, 52). "Vitalism is irrefutable" and therefore incapable of being considered as a scientific hypothesis or theory (Beckner 1967, vol. 8, 254). Science cannot operate on the basis of a "factor" which is "unknown and presumably unknowable" (Mayr 1982, 52). Nor can it operate with theories that cannot be refuted and therefore cannot be tested. In other words, Hamilton's matter-of-fact knowledge is central to scientific inquiry.
The understanding of the machine-like characteristics of the living organism was essential for the scientific advances that have given us the longer life and good health that has been achieved over the last two centuries. These advances have furthered the other aspects of the human endeavor in keeping us alive so we can cultivate and appreciate the aesthetic dimension of our being.
In 1828, chemistry professor Friedreich Woehler, M.D. (1800-1882), accomplished the first laboratory synthesis of an organic compound (specifically, urea). He thus proved that chemistry could duplicate, even without organic molecules, a product of animal metabolism. The vitalists of Woehler's time maintained that organic molecules could not be derived from inorganic molecules. Another chemistry professor, Justus Baron von Liebig (1803-1873), a co-founder of agricultural chemistry, in his essay "Chemistry in Its Application to Agriculture and Physiology" refuted the theory, then prevalent, that only organic material (specifically, humus) nourished plants. Following Lavoisier, Liebig recognized that "respiration involves oxidation of substances within the body for the production of heat" and concluded that the "carbon dioxide exhaled by the body was an index of its heat production" (McCollum 1957, 93).
Among Liebig's highest achievements was his discovery that minerals alone could fertilize soil. Wide acceptance of this discovery has enabled better nourishment of humankind--despite humans numbering more than six times what they did before the discovery. To Lady Balfour, proponent of "organic agriculture" and a founder of the Soil Association in England, Liebig's "naive theory" did result in increased food production, but it was nutritionally inferior (Balfour 1948, 50-51; 1976, 56). It lacked a "vital quality" as the modern world "largely ruled by chemistry" had neglected the "continuity of the living principle in nature" (25). Like Hamilton's mystic potencies, vital qualities are strictly in the eye of the beholder.
In 1845, one of Woehler's students, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884), accomplished the first synthesis of an organic compound (acetic acid) from its elements. To Sidney Toby (2000), "the death-knell of vitalism in chemistry was sounded." In England, scientists like Sir Humphrey Davy were demonstrating the importance of minerals for the human body and the illnesses that result from their deficiency. As with many heuristic advances in science and technology, the recognition of the nutritional importance of minerals along with Pasteur's work on microbial infection led to excess diagnostic reliance on these understandings. Late nineteenth and early twentieth century research by a number of scientists led to the recognition that disease could also be caused by nutritional deficiencies. These efforts culminated in the discovery of vitamins, which were named by Casimir Funk (originally called vitalamines) and for which Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins won the Nobel Prize in 1912 (Hopkins 1929).
The Darwinian revolution that so influenced Hamiltonian and institutional thought was clearly consistent with the earlier trends in chemistry and undoubtedly influenced by them. Darwinian theories had to overcome the essentialist beliefs about the immutability of species (Mayr 2001, 78, 83). This was comparable to the challenge to chemistry concerning organic compounds and their essential vital characteristics. In contrast to earlier saltation or instantaneous mutation theories, Darwin, like Sir Charles Lyell, found continuities in a uniformatarian, transformationalist mode of variational evolution of populations (Mayr 2001, 78, 80, 85; Gould 1977, 21). In contrast to vitalist doctrines, Darwinian theory is non-teleological (Mayr 2001, 82). Put into the language of social sciences, Darwin's theoretical framework has an almost perfect congruence with that of Hamilton--uniformatarian, transformational, and non-teleological. What is truly astounding about this theoretical framework is that after 100 years of the Darwinian "revolution," molecular biology using DNA for analysis has so solidly confirmed the classifications...
|
