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...(empirical-inductive), formal operational (hypothetical-deductive). Subjects interacted with science exhibits requiring empirical-deductive (EI) hypothetical-deductive (HD) reasoning to understand the inherent science concepts. Ninety-five percent of the subjects demonstrated complete or partial understanding of the exhibits' concepts that necessitated EI, or concrete, reasoning. In contrast, 94% of the subjects that interacted with exhibits requiring HD, or formal, reasoning demonstrated misconceptions or no understanding of the associated concepts. Students within each developmental level demonstrated significantly greater understanding of the concepts from exhibits requiring EI reasoning than from exhibits requiring HD reasoning.
Introduction
Contemporary museums of science and technology offer countless opportunities to engage in informal science learning. These museums can serve as excellent laboratories for studying the processes of learning because of the availability of large audiences, free-choice environments, and interactive exhibits. Conventional studies of science museums typically examine exhibit design techniques, visitor behaviors, and the quality of visitors' experiences (Ault & Nagel, 1997; Borun, Chambers, Dritsas, & Johnson, 1997; Henriksen, 1998; Korn, 1995; Raloff, 1998; Sandifer, 1997). Other studies have explored relationships between museum design and associated learning (Allen, 1997; Falk, 1997; Griffin, 1998; Rix & McSorley, 1999; Schauble & Bartlett, 1997; Semlak & Beck, 1999). We believe a possible factor that may influence learning in these informal environments is the visitors' level of cognitive development. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to explore links among (1) free exploration of interactive science m useum exhibits, (2) resulting conceptual understandings, and (3) the associated cognitive developmental levels.
Research Methodology
Science Museum
The Hands-On Science Museum known as the Omniplex is part of a 10-acre museum complex, which is one of the largest and most prominent in the southwestern United States. Located in Oklahoma City, the Omniplex houses over 350 interactive exhibits for visitors of all ages, backgrounds, and interests. The exhibits are arranged according to specific science themes such as Perception. Light, Sound, Life Sciences, Energy, Meteorology, Physics, Agriculture, and Nutrition. Our study focused on five specific interactive science exhibits: (1) "Pipes of Pan," (2) "Hot Air Balloon," (3) "Body Resistance," (4) "Bernoulli's Principle Airfoil Lift," and (5) "Jacob's Ladder."
Sample and Pilot Study
There were 45 children participating in this research (26 females and 19 males) between the ages of 5 and 13 who were selected at random from a pool of over 200 subjects. The pool was composed of children who responded to a published announcement requesting assistance in evaluating museum programs and exhibits. The sample was representative of the population of elementary school-aged children who visit science museums, as determined in a pilot study.
Results from our pilot study with young science museum visitors also revealed that eight Piagetian tasks (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958) could be used to classify each subject into one of three cognitive developmental groups: (1) pre-operational (PO), (2) concrete or empirical-inductive (EI), or (3) formal or hypothetical-deductive (HD). We use the EI and HD labels for concrete and formal operations, respectively, because each is a more useful and definitive descriptor of the Piagetian operations as used in this research. Six Piagetian conservation tasks were administered to each subject; these were (1) number, (2) liquid amount, (3) solid amount, (4) area, (5) length, and (6) volume. In addition, the (7) balance beam task (proportional reasoning) and the (8) colored beads task (combinatorial logic) were also administered to all subjects (Marek & Cavallo, 1997).
The first five tasks were used to distinguish the PO subjects from the concrete (EI) subjects, while tasks 6-8 served to distinguish the EI subjects from the HD (formal) subjects. In other words, subjects who conserved none or only one of the first six tasks were classified as PO. The remaining three tasks were scored using a conventional Piagetian scheme in which responses were identified as early concrete, concrete, early formal, or fully formal operational. An individual's composite score was then used to classify him or her as EI (concrete) or HD (formal). To qualify for the HD group, the subject had to be early formal operational on one or more of the tasks--(6) conservation of volume, (7) balance beam, and (8) colored beads task--and be at least early concrete or concrete operational on the remainder of the tasks (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The subjects scoring between the PO and HD were classified as EI. Twelve subjects in the study were PO, 16 were EI, and 17 subjects were HD.
The pilot study also provided data for finalizing the research...
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