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Article Excerpt
Introduction
Over the past six years, in the course of documenting the grammar of the Thangmi language, I have found the lexicon to be replete with indigenous names for local flora and fauna. Many of these indigenous terms are falling into disuse, or being replaced by Nepali words as fluency in the national language increases. Older Thangmi speakers have encouraged me to document the local botanical terminology, and the medicinal and ritual uses of the plants as a record for younger generations of Thangmi speakers as well as for the international scholarly community. With this goal in mind, the present article offers a list of Thangmi lexical items for flora.
Since I am untrained in ethnobotany and taxonomy, the vernacular English terms and Latin names which I have included may in some cases be incorrect and I am unable to ensure accuracy. However, I have crosschecked each term and its associated ritual or medicinal uses with at least three native speakers of Thangmi, and the Nepali and Latin names for plants, alongside the common vernacular English terms, are always provided when known. The list has been ordered according to a modified Roman alphabetical ordering, with aspirates such as/kh/and/th/ following the unaspirated series. After each Thangmi term, (D) for Dolakha and/or (S) for Sindhupalcok are shown to indicate the Thangmi speech variety in which the word is attested. While many botanical terms are common to both dialects, some terms are noticeably different.
A note on the Thangmi language and its speakers
The Thangmi language is spoken by an ethnic group of the same name, known as Thami in Nepali, who live primarily in the districts of Dolakha and Sindhupalcok in eastern Nepal. According to the last population census taken in 2001, Nepal is home to 18,991 mother tongue Thangmi speakers and 22,999 ethnic Thangmi. For a variety of reasons, which I have discussed elsewhere at greater length (Turin 2000), I believe these population statistics to be a considerable underestimate. I place the total ethnic Thangmi population closer to 30,000 in Nepal, with another 5,000 or so in Darjeeling and Sikkim in India. While the genetic position of the Thangmi language is not the substance of this article, it may interest readers to know that Thangmi shows a certain affinity with the Kiranti languages spoken in eastern Nepal, particularly with regard to the complex and pronominalised verbal agreement system (see Turin 1998 for further details). Furthermore, there are striking similarities between the lexicons of Thangmi and Classical Newar, and while the status of these lexical isoglosses is not clear, they are discussed in greater length in Turin (in press).
Ethnobotanical research on the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal
For over 50 years, scholars have been documenting the flora of Nepal. These writings offer a mine of important information pertaining to the ethnobotanical and indigenous medicinal systems of Nepal's ethnic communities. A number of excellent compilations and books are available in Kathmandu bookshops which offer comparative lexical lists (see Rajbhandari 2001), formatted databases and extensive bibliographies of Himalayan ethnobotany. Many of the earliest, and now seminal, articles on Nepalese ethnobotany, including inventories of botanical terminology in specific Tibeto-Burman languages, have been published in the pages of this journal (see Bhattarai 1989 and 1991, Manandhar 1993 and 1998, and Shrestha 1985 and 1988), along with substantial contributions in Kailash, the Journal of the Natural History Museum (Nepal), and the Journal of the Nepal Research Centre. In keeping with this tradition, it seems fitting to publish this preliminary Thangmi botanical word list in Contributions to Nepalese Studies and thereby add to the corpus of knowledge available to scholars both in and of Nepal.
Thangmi plant names and their uses
adhai ~ adai (D) & (S)
Nepali kakro
cucumber, Cucumis sativus
The fruit is edible both raw and cooked. The older fruits are traditionally cooked as a vegetable curry or preserved as a pickle. When consumed raw, cucumbers are believed to protect against jaundice and to counteract the negative effects of smoking. Ritual uses are limited to the Hindu festival of tij, during which it-is auspicious if a cucumber is the first solid food consumed after the conclusion of the fast.
ahel (D) ~ syunnan (S)
Nepali dabdabe
garuga, Garuga pinnata; Lannea coromandelica
The only use is as fodder for domesticated animals.
akal (D) ~ cyolampi (S)
Nepali seto kaulo
a species of tree, Persea odoratissima
The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals while the bark is used to flavour sel roft and as a red dye. The wood of the trunk is burned as firewood, and the better sections are used in house construction and for furniture.
akan (D) & (S)
Nepali jau
barley, Hordeum vulgare
This hard grain is made into flat breads or a porridge-like substance. The ritual uses of barley include the cleansing of polluted spaces in marriage and death ceremonies, during which the grains are burned in the fire to frighten away evil spirits. Barley stalks are used as thatch on roofs and are also collected as fodder for domesticated animals. If the auspicious day of sombare ausi falls within the month of pus, then balls of barley flour mixed together with water and cow's milk are taken to the nearest river and thrown in. This offering is believed to bring peace to the spirits of the dead.
akyarak (D)
Nepali bako
the bulb of an arum lily, Arum campanulatum
The inside of the bulb is eaten as a polenta-like paste in times of hardship, after being peeled, dried, beaten and cooked. The 'eyes' or new sprouts of the bulb are poisonous to humans if consumed, as are the seeds,
akhyak (D)
Nepali bhus
barley and wheat inflorescence
The inflorescence is fed as fodder to cows in the months of cait and baisakh.
altak (D) ~ pataren (S)
Nepali laliguras
the Nepalese rhododendron tree, Rhododendron arboreum
In the winter months, the fresh leaves make good fodder, but when the flowers are in bloom, the leaves are poisonous to animals. The wood of the trunk can be burned as firewood or used for furniture and house beams. If the flower is consumed by someone choking on a fish or chicken bone, the petals are believed to remove the obstruction and help the swallowing reflex.
kiji altak (D)
Nepali kalo guras
the black rhododendron, Rhododendron grande
See above under altak for uses.
amum (D) ~ amom (S)
Nepali cyau
mushroom
bagalya amum (D)
Nepali chate cyau
This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the months of asar and bhadau.
ciripitik amum (D)
Nepali chala cyau, patpate cyau
a species of edible mushroom, Flammulina velutipes
This chewy mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry or preserved as a chutney. It ripens in the month of saun.
kiji amum (D) ~ kiji amom (S)
Nepali kalo khane cyau
honey fungus, Armillariella mellea
This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the months of saun and bhadau.
kulla amum (D)
Nepali kan cyau
This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the month of bhadau.
ninis amum (D)
Nepali kan cyau
This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the months of asar and bhadau.
nunu amum (D)
Nepali dudh cyau
This mushroom is cooked and consumed as a vegetable curry. It ripens in the month of bhadau.
arka (D) & (S)
Nepali okhar
walnut, Juglans regia
The nut can be eaten raw. The outside shell gives off a black dye when beaten, and this is used to paint house doors. The bark of the tree trunk as well as the leaves are used as a poison to stun fish, for which the preparation is as follows: the bark is stripped off and leaves collected, these are then beaten and little pieces are thrown in the water where fish are known to swim. The substance in the bark temporarily stuns the fish after which they float to the surface and can be collected. The poison does not affect humans and consumption is thus safe. The trunk of the tree is used for timber and household furniture, while smaller pieces are burned as firewood. At bhai tika during the Hindu festival of tihar, women place walnuts in the doorways of houses. When cracked, these are believed to kill local demons.
anen (D) & (S)
Nepali harkaulo
The leaves are collected as fodder for several domesticated animals, and the small red nut is roasted and peeled to be eaten as a snack. The trunk is used in furniture construction on account of its strength.
asip (D) & (S)
Nepali ghurmiso, ghurbaiso
The leaves are collected as fodder for cows and goats. The timber is used for making traditional bee hives, since bees are partial to this wood. The flowers, which blossom in the month of cait, secrete a sweet juice and are eaten,
au (D) [ritual language]
Nepali ap
mango, Mangifera sylvatica; Mangifera indica
The fruit is consumed, and the wood is used as timber.
awakdu calak (D) & (S)
Nepali tite gittha
bitter air yam, Dioscorea bulbifera
The leaves are collected as fodder for domesticated animals. The bulb, which grows underground, is boiled in water, peeled and eaten as a snack in the month of magh. The fruit, which ripens in the months of kartik and masir,...
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