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Article Excerpt
Other things being equal, most organizations would like to hire people with above-average IQ because it seems logical to think such people would be above-average employees in terms of performance and leadership. But such is not the case according to this broad literature survey. In fact, assuming that IQ is adequate, an individual's level of emotional intelligence (El) has more predictive integrity. E1 involves knowing when and how to express emotions as well as the ability to control emotions. It involves selfawareness, self-management, social awareness, and the ability to manage relationships (Daniel Goleman, 1998). Evidence also suggests that it can be learned, and once learned, will be retained for considerable time.
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This paper on emotional intelligence will address some important questions including: What is emotional intelligence (EI)? How is it different from other established constructs in psychology? Is it possible to develop EI? Is EI a better predictor of work performance than traditional measures of intelligence?
Background
Research on emotional intelligence began as early as the 1930s with researchers Robert Thomdike and Stein (1937) and Wechsler (1940). David Wechsler defined intelligence as "the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment" (Wechsler, 1958). He also wrote, "It follows that we cannot expect to measure total intelligence until our tests also include some measures of the non-intellective factors" (Wechsler, 1943).
The work of these early pioneers was largely overlooked until 1983 when Howard Gardner began writing about "multiple intelligence." He proposed that intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence are as important as the type of intelligence typically measured by IQ and related tests.
Conducted in the 1940s, the Ohio State Studies were some of the earliest research studies on leadership. J. K. Hemphill (1959) suggested that "consideration" is an important aspect of effective leadership. This research study suggested that leaders who are able to establish "mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport" with members of their group will be more effective (Fleishman and Harris, 1962).
Around the same time period, the Office of Strategic Services (1948) created a process of assessment based on the work of Murray (1938) that included the appraisal of noncognitive and cognitive abilities. This became known as the "assessment center" and was first used in the private sector by AT&T in 1956 (Bray, 1976).
Many of the factors evaluated in the assessment centers past and present include social and emotional competencies including communication, sensitivity, initiative, and interpersonal skills (Thornton and Byham, 1982).
By the 1990s, a long tradition of research on the role of noncognitive factors had been established to help people succeed in both life and the workplace. The current research has been built on this tradition.
Current Research, Theory, and Practice
Salovey and Mayer coined the term "emotional intelligence" in 1990 (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). They were well aware of the previous work on non-cognitive aspects of intelligence and they described emotional intelligence as "a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and action" (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).
These partners launched a research program with the intent to develop valid measures of emotional intelligence and to explore its significance. In one study they found that when people saw an upsetting film, those who scored high on emotional clarity (the ability to identify and name to a mood being experienced) recovered more quickly (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, and Palfai, 1995). In another study, individuals who scored higher in the ability to perceive accurately, understand and appraise others' emotions were better able to respond flexibly to changes in their social environments and build supportive social networks (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, and Mayer, 1999).
In the early 1990s, Daniel Goleman became aware of the work of Salovey and Mayer. He was a science writer for the New York Times and later became a professor at Harvard University. He published, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Matters More Than IQ, in 1995, and has since published such works as Working with Emotional Intelligence (1998), Emotionally Intelligent Parenting (2000), Primal Leadership: Leading with Emotional Intelligence (2002), and Social Intelligence: Beyond IQ to Emotional Intelligence (2006).
Over 30 years ago, D.C. McClelland (1973) and other researchers became concerned with how little traditional tests of cognitive intelligence tell us about what it takes to succeed in life. One of the primary reasons for the current interest in emotional intelligence is its potential usefulness in predicting a range of criteria across different populations. Hunter and Hunter (1984), found that IQ by itself is not a very good predictor of job performance. They estimated that, at best, in an ideal situation, IQ accounts for up to 25% of the variance for high-performing workers.
Sternberg (1996) has confirmed that research results vary and that 10% may be a more realistic estimate. Some studies have found that IQ accounts for a little as 4% of the variance. Still, IQ will likely remain a significant predictor of effectiveness, especially in regard to selection of jobs, professions, and career paths.
Practitioners who must make decisions on hiring and promotion are far more interested in assessing capabilities related to outstanding performance and leadership. Qualitative research suggests that IQ measures fail to account for large portions of the variance related to performance and career success, especially among top managers and senior leaders (Fernandez-Araoz, 2001). A large body of research indicates that IQ does not predict success for top performers as well as competencies that integrate cognitive, emotional, and social abilities--all of which may be represented as emotional intelligence.
How EI Differs from Other Established Constructs in Psychology
There is a growing awareness that the abilities, traits, and competencies related to emotional intelligence are woven together with cognitive intelligence (Cherniss, 2001). A good example of this research is the Sommerville study, a 40-year investigation of 450 boys who grew up in Sommerville, Massachusetts. Two-thirds of the boys were from welfare families and one-third had IQs below 90. However, IQ had little relation to how well they did at work or in the rest of their lives. What made the biggest...
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